Hyesook Kim; Yu Jin Kim; Yeni Lim; Oran Kwon

doi:10.4163/jnh.2018.51.6.538

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This article has been corrected. See "Erratum: Authorship Correction. Association of coffee consumption with health-related quality of life and metabolic syndrome in Korean adults: based on 2013 ~ 2016 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey" in Volume 52 on page 412.

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Kim, Kim, Lim, and Kwon: Association of coffee consumption with health-related quality of life and metabolic syndrome in Korean adults: based on 2013∼2016 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Research Article

J Nutr Health 2018;51(6):538-555.

Published online: 20 January 2018

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4163/jnh.2018.51.6.538

Association of coffee consumption with health-related quality of life and metabolic syndrome in Korean adults: based on 2013∼2016 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Hyesook Kim, Yu Jin Kim, Yeni Lim, Oran Kwon^†

Department of Nutritional Science and Food Management, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea

^† To whom correspondence should be addressed. tel: +82-2-3277-6860, E-mail: orank@ewha.ac.kr

Received 12 October 2018 Revised 21 October 2018 Accepted 31 October 2018

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Purpose

This study examined the association of the type and frequency of coffee consumption with the health-related quality of life and metabolic bio-markers in adult men and women from the 2013∼2016 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). Methods: A total of 11,201 subjects (4,483 men and 6,718 women) were classified according to the type of coffee consumption (non-coffee, black coffee, 3-in-1 coffee) and type and frequency of coffee consumption (non-coffee, ≤ 2 times/day of black coffee, >2 times/day of black coffee, ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee, >2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee) using food frequency questionnaires. Dietary nutrient intake data were assessed using food frequency questionnaires. The health-related quality of life was measured using the EuroQol-5 dimension (EQ-5D) and EQ-5D index score. Data on metabolic bio-markers were obtained from a health examination. Results: Among men and women, the proportion of subjects with an energy intake below the estimated energy requirement (EER) was lower among the 3-in-1 coffee consumption group, and the proportion of subjects with iron intakes below the estimated average requirements (EAR) was lower among the 3-in-1 coffee consumption group. Women (OR: 0.810, 95% CI: 0.657∼0.998) with the ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee had a lower risk of impaired health-related quality of life (lowest 20% level in the EQ-5D score) compared to the non-coffee consumers after a multivariable adjustment. In both men and women, the type and frequency of coffee consumption was not associated with metabolic bio-markers risk after multivariable adjustment. Conclusion: These results suggest that 3-in-1 coffee consumption may be associated with a lower risk of impaired health-related quality of life and may not be associated with the metabolic bio-markers risk in adult men and women.

Keywords: 3-in 1 coffee, black coffee, consumption, health-related quality of life, metabolic syndrome

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Fig 1.

Flow chart of the subject inclusion and exclusion criteria in the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) 2013–2016: (a) Association between coffee consumption and health-related quality of life, and (b) Association between coffee consumption and metabolic syndrome.

Table 1.

General characteristics of subjects according to the type of coffee consumption

Men (n = 4,483)						Women (n = 6,718)
Non-coffee (n = 467)		Black coffee (n = 625)	3-in-1 coffee (n = 3,391)	p-value < .0001 0.0063	Non-coffee (n = 953)	Black coffee (n = 1,427)	3-in-1 coffee (n = 4,338)	p-value
Age (yrs)	34.42 ± 0.64^1)c	37.07 ± 0.58^b	41.85 ± 0.24^a	<.0001	39.14 ± 0.55^b	39.21 ± 0.40^b	43.34 ± 0.23^a	< .0001
Body mass index (kg/m²)	24.06 ± 0.18^b	24.88 ± 0.18^a	24.55 ± 0.07^a	0.0063	22.33 ± 0.13^b	22.89 ± 0.10^a	23.16 ± 0.06^a	< .0001
Marital status
Single	247 (43.27)²⁾	414 (57.61)	2,668 (72.64)	< .0001	702 (65.34)	1,091 (69.64)	3,794 (83.13)	< .0001
Married	220 (56.73)	211 (42.39)	723 (27.36)		251 (34.66)	336 (30.36)	544 (16.87)
Education
Middle school or less	40 (5.31)	35 (3.91)	578 (13.43)	< .0001	240 (19.18)	186 (10.54)	1,024 (20.84)	< .0001
High school	233 (53.09)	210 (35.93)	1,313 (40.98)		384 (43.38)	581 (41.92)	1,690 (40.53)
College or more	194 (41.60)	380 (60.16)	1,500 (45.60)		329 (37.44)	660 (47.53)	1,624 (38.63)
Household income
Low	59 (12.79)	39 (7.91)	277 (7.69)		< .0001	114 (10.90)	96 (6.88)	454 (9.72)	< .0001
Middle-low	109 (24.91)	122 (18.97)	800 (23.57)	271 (27.87)		304 (20.12)	1,109 (25.55)
Middle-high	134 (29.47)	187 (29.63)	1,151 (34.49)	290 (32.64)		448 (32.00)	1,363 (31.67)
High	163 (32.83)	275 (43.49)	1,156 (34.25)	271 (28.59)		573 (41.00)	1,404 (33.06)
Smoking status
Never	212 (47.00)	174 (30.28)	717 (22.59)	< .0001	863 (89.51)	1,246 (86.36)	3,846 (87.55)	0.0974
Former	143 (27.75)	265 (38.21)	1,138 (31.07)		51 (5.29)	95 (7.48)	232 (5.65)
Current	112 (25.25)	186 (31.51)	1,536 (46.34)		39 (5.21)	86 (6.16)	260 (6.80)
Alcohol consumption
None	82 (15.79)	55 (8.37)	421 (11.40)		< .0001	411 (36.67)	288 (18.32)	1,180 (24.93)	< .0001
≤ 1/mo	120 (28.96)	128 (22.76)	711 (21.34)	305 (34.22)		532 (37.73)	1,735 (40.83)
2 ∼ 4/mo	124 (26.67)	206 (33.20)	1,030 (32.33)	166 (20.75)		374 (27.22)	932 (22.54)
≥ 2/wk	141 (28.58)	236 (35.67)	1,229 (34.93)	71 (8.36)		233 (16.73)	491 (11.71)
Regular exercise
No	161 (31.36)	194 (29.90)	1,423 (39.99)	< .0001		410 (42.50)	553 (35.91)	2,055 (45.86)	< .0001
Yes	306 (68.64)	431 (70.10)	1,968 (60.01)		543 (57.50)	874 (64.09)	2,283 (54.14)
Dietary supplement use
No	162 (33.51)	293 (44.98)	1,325 (38.42)	0.0016	436 (44.81)	763 (51.51)	2,201 (50.89)	0.0054
Yes	305 (66.49)	332 (55.02)	2,066 (61.58)		517 (55.19)	664 (48.49)	2,137 (49.11)
Menopause status
No					557 (66.85)	1,029 (76.75)	2,720 (67.39)	< .0001
Yes					396 (33.15)	398 (23.25)	1,618 (32.61)
No. of physician diagnosed chronnic diseases
0	261 (58.79)	295 (50.26)	1,844 (57.67)		0.0042	434 (48.73)	699 (48.80)	2,164 (51.60)	0.0159
1	133 (28.58)	189 (30.61)	929 (26.16)			272 (28.29)	451 (33.11)	1,252 (28.58)
2	34 (6.71)	93 (13.06)	400 (10.90)	137 (14.12)		174 (11.82)	550 (11.85)
≥ 3	39 (5.92)	48 (6.07)	218 (5.27)	110 (8.86)		103 (6.27)	372 (7.96)

Weighted column percentage is presented and may not total 100% because of rounding. 1) mean ± SE 2) n (%)

Table 2.

Proportions of subjects with energy and nutrient intake below the EER and EAR according to the type of coffee consumption

	Men (n = 4,483)					Women (n = 6,718)
	Non-coffee (n = 467)	Black coffee (n = 625)	3-in-1 coffee (n = 3,391)	p-value	Non-coffee (n = 953)	Black coffee (n = 1,427)	3-in-1 coffee (n = 4,338)	p-value
Energy
Below the EER	290 (60.99)	402 (64.46)	1,887 (54.72)	< .0001	631 (66.08)	925 (65.82)	2,638 (61.20)	0.0033
Above the EER	177 (39.01)	223 (35.54)	1,504 (45.28)		322 (33.92)	502 (34.18)	1,700 (38.80)
Total sugar
Below 20% of energy	447 (95.30)	600 (96.22)	3,246 (96.08)	0.7260	791 (84.96)	1,198 (84.98)	3,774 (86.66)	0.9787
Above 20% of energy	20 (4.70)	25 (3.78)	145 (3.92)		162 (15.04)	229 (15.02)	564 (13.34)
Protein
Below the EAR	111 (21.49)	134 (20.49)	752 (20.50)	0.8938	263 (28.19)	326 (22.86)	880 (19.89)	< .0001
Above the EAR	356 (78.51)	491 (79.51)	2,639 (79.50)		690 (71.81)	1,101 (77.14)	3,458 (80.11)
Vitamin A
Below the EAR	222 (47.77)	294 (47.26)	1,507 (44.33)	0.2645	337 (37.96)	439 (32.39)	1,408 (33.19)	0.0245
Above the EAR	245 (52.23)	331 (52.74)	1,884 (55.67)		616 (62.04)	988 (67.61)	2,930 (66.81)
Vitamin B₁
Below the EAR	23 (4.87)	29 (4.72)	144 (4.01)	0.6052	67 (7.23)	107 (6.99)	286 (6.13)	0.4124
Above the EAR	444 (95.13)	596 (95.28)	3,247 (95.99)		886 (92.77)	1,320 (93.01)	4,052 (93.87)
Vitamin B₂
Below the EAR	231 (45.80)	279 (42.97)	1,632 (45.38)	0.5652	405 (40.58)	492 (34.05)	1,682 (37.30)	0.0137
Above the EAR	236 (54.20)	346 (57.03)	1,759 (54.62)		548 (59.42)	935 (65.95)	2,656 (62.70)
Niacin
Below the EAR	179 (36.41)	219 (33.35)	1,198 (33.46)	0.4957	471 (48.88)	605 (42.14)	1,987 (45.45)	0.0099
Above the EAR	288 (63.59)	406 (66.65)	2,193 (66.54)		482 (51.12)	822 (57.86)	2,351 (54.55)
Vitamin C
Below the EAR	203 (44.38)	246 (39.91)	1,444 (42.82)	0.3315	305 (34.69)	411 (30.86)	1,380 (32.84)	0.2508
Above the EAR	264 (55.62)	379 (60.09)	1,947 (57.18)		648 (65.31)	1,016 (69.14)	2,958 (67.16)
Calcium
Below the EAR	353 (75.28)	476 (76.39)	2,516 (73.17)	0.2407	681 (71.12)	973 (69.03)	3,083 (70.54)	0.5215
Above the EAR	114 (24.72)	149 (23.61)	875 (26.83)		272 (28.88)	454 (30.97)	1,255 (29.46)
Iron
Below the EAR	43 (9.41)	51 (9.35)	211 (6.39)	0.0104	263 (32.74)	459 (35.46)	1,092 (27.46)	< .0001
Above the EAR	424 (90.59)	574 (90.65)	3,180 (93.61)		690 (67.26)	968 (64.54)	3,246 (72.54)	< .0001

EER, estimated energy requirement; EAR, estimated average requirement Weighted column percentage is presented and may not total 100% because of rounding. 1) n (%)

Table 3.

ORs (95% CIs) of impaired health-related quality of life according to the type of coffee consumption

	Men (n = 4,483)			Women (n = 6,718)
	Non-coffee	Black coffee	3-in-1 coffee	Non-coffee	Black coffee	3-in-1 coffee
	(n = 467)	(n = 625)	(n = 3,391)	(n = 953)	(n = 1,427)	(n = 4,338)
EQ-5D index score¹⁾
% of cases	17.17	15.94	20.00	20.05	15.07	17.49
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	1.036 (0.676, 1.587)	1.238 (0.881, 1.741)	ref	0.866 (0.669, 1.120)	0.846 (0.688, 1.041)
OR 2 (95% CI)	0.966 (0.630, 1.480)	ref	1.196 (0.896, 1.596) 1	1.155 (0.893, 1.495)	ref	0.978 (0.802, 1.192)
Mobility²⁾
% of cases	5.15	3.17	4.82	7.26	4.96	7.98
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	0.592 (0.262, 1.335)	0.683 (0.372, 1.256)	ref	0.905 (0.612, 1.339)	1.052 (0.780, 1.418)
OR 2 (95% CI)	1.689 (0.749, 3.811)	ref	1.154 (0.619, 2.155) 1	1.105 (0.747, 1.635)	ref	1.162 (0.864, 1.563)
Self-care²⁾
% of cases	1.95	1.65	1.25	1.99	0.99	1.43
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	1.209 (0.325, 4.496)	0.378 (0.136, 1.049)	ref	0.758 (0.365, 1.572)	0.684 (0.382, 1.225)
OR 2 (95% CI)	0.827 (0.222, 3.074)	ref	0.313 (0.117, 0.836) 1	1.319 (0.636, 2.737)	ref	0.903 (0.516, 1.581)
Usual activities²⁾
% of cases	4.74	2.52	3.00	5.78	4.03	4.97
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	0.780 (0.323, 1.889)	0.651 (0.317, 1.338)	ref	0.942 (0.607, 1.460)	0.818 (0.576, 1.163)
OR 2 (95% CI)	1.281 (0.529, 3.101)	ref	0.834 (0.375, 1.859) 1	1.062 (0.685, 1.647)	ref	0.869 (0.627, 1.205)
Pain/discomfort²⁾
% of cases	12.17	12.25	14.94	24.55	19.43	21.86
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	1.118 (0.691, 1.810)	1.194 (0.809, 1.762)	ref	0.827 (0.649, 1.053)	0.800 (0.650, 0.986)
OR 2 (95% CI)	0.894 (0.553, 1.447)	ref	1.068 (0.782, 1.459) 1	1.210 (0.949, 1.542)	ref	0.968 (0.819, 1.145)
Anxiety/depression²⁾
% of cases	7.58	6.42	5.90	14.94	10.84	11.01
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	0.926 (0.504, 1.701)	0.829 (0.509, 1.349)	ref	0.786 (0.589, 1.050)	0.715 (0.568, 0.900)
OR 2 (95% CI)	1.080 (0.588, 1.984)	ref	0.895 (0.543, 1.474) 1	1.272 (0.952, 1.698)	ref	0.910 (0.723, 1.144)

OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; EQ-5D, EuroQol-5dimension OR 1; when ref is Non-coffee; OR 2; when ref is Black coffee ORs were adjusted for age, body mass index, marital status, household income, education level, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, supplement use, energy intake, menopause status, and number of physician diagnosed chronic diseases 1) The lowest 20% level in EQ-5D score was used as cut-off point for impaired health-related quality of life 2) Some or extreme problems in the EQ-5D domains were used as cut-off points for determining impaired health-related quality of life.

Table 4.

ORs (95% CIs) of impaired health-related quality of life according to the type and frequency of coffee consumption

	Men (n = 4,483)					Women (n = 6,718)
	0 time/day (n = 467)	≤ 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 451)	> 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 174)	≤ 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 2,822)	> 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 569)	0 time/day (n = 953)	≤ 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 1,167)	> 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 260)	≤ 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 3,955)	> 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 383)
EQ-5D index score¹⁾
% of cases	17.17	17.55	11.78	19.94	20.28	20.05	15.13	14.80	16.95	23.01
OR (95% CI)	ref	1.105 (0.703, 1.736)	0.869 (0.465, 1.621)	1.208 (0.857, 1.704)	1.442 (0.938, 2.215)	ref	0.845 (0.646, 1.105)	1.017 (0.648, 1.598)	0.810 (0.657, 0.998)	1.346 (0.961, 1.886)
Mobility²⁾
% of cases	5.15	3.12	3.28	5.08	3.54	7.26	5.09	4.39	7.57	12.10
OR (95% CI)	ref	0.537 (0.204, 1.410)	0.744 (0.272, 2.036)	0.706 (0.382, 1.304)	0.547 (0.254, 1.179)	ref	0.893 (0.598, 1.333)	1.106 (0.514, 2.380)	0.978 (0.724, 1.322)	2.346 (0.976, 3.726)
Self-care²⁾
% of cases	1.95	2.09	0.50	1.31	0.97	1.99	1.05	0.72	1.33	2.42
OR (95% CI)	ref	1.394 (0.356, 5.448)	0.492 (0.057, 4.240)	0.405 (0.144, 1.142)	0.199 (0.062, 0.633)	ref	0.774 (0.368, 1.631)	0.895 (0.174, 4.601)	0.633 (0.350, 1.144)	1.946 (0.751, 5.045)
Usual activities²⁾
% of cases	4.74	2.30	3.08	3.01	2.93	5.78	4.41	2.37	4.68	7.84
OR (95% CI)	ref	0.605 (0.203, 1.800)	1.525 (0.479, 4.857)	0.635 (0.306, 1.316)	0.875 (0.346, 2.217)	ref	1.001 (0.641, 1.563)	0.708 (0.245, 2.050)	0.763 (0.535, 1.089)	1.692 (0.967, 2.960)
Pain/discomfort²⁾
% of cases	12.17	13.17	9.87	14.94	14.91	24.55	19.53	19.00	21.56	24.95
OR (95% CI)	ref	1.158 (0.697, 1.924)	1.024 (0.516, 2.033)	1.174 (0.795, 1.734)	1.332 (0.812, 2.184)	ref	0.818 (0.635, 1.052)	0.891 (0.593, 1.339)	0.781 (0.634, 0.961)	1.054 (0.748, 1.487)
Anxiety/depression²⁾
% of cases	7.58	7.52	3.59	5.82	6.27	14.94	10.73	11.35	10.68	14.34
OR (95% CI)	ref	1.009 (0.530, 1.924)	0.698 (0.241, 2.024)	0.790 (0.482, 1.295)	1.120 (0.581, 2.157)	ref	0.762 (0.562, 1.033)	0.936 (0.553, 1.583)	0.695 (0.551, 0.877)	0.964 (0.650, 1.429)

OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; EQ-5D, EuroQol-5dimension ORs were adjusted for age, body mass index, marital status, household income, education level, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, supplement use, energy intake, menopause status, and number of physician diagnosed chronic diseases. 1) The lowest 20% level in EQ-5D score was used as cut-off point for impaired health-related quality of life. 2) Some or extreme problems in the EQ-5D domains were used as cut-off points for determining impaired health-related quality of life.

Table 5.

Metabolic bio-markers of subjects according to the type of coffee consumption

	Men (n = 2,497)				Women (n = 3,902)
	Non-coffee	Black coffee	3-in-1 coffee	Adjusted	Non-coffee	Black coffee	3-in-1 coffee	Adjusted
	(n = 271)	(n = 383)	(n = 1,843)	p-value	(n = 564)	(n = 913)	(n = 2,425)	p-value
No. of metabolic syndrome components¹⁾	1.41 ± 0.07²⁾	1.37 ± 0.06	1.37 ± 0.03	0.8802	0.96 ± 0.05	0.94 ± 0.04	0.94 ± 0.03	0.8794
Waist circumference (cm)	84.80 ± 0.27	85.13 ± 0.22	84.86 ± 0.14	0.4246	76.25 ± 0.24	76.29 ± 0.21	76.48 ± 0.17	0.4009
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	117.43 ± 0.79	116.15 ± 0.71	116.67 ± 0.34	0.3929	110.59 ± 0.65	110.39 ± 0.53	110.34 ± 0.43	0.9147
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	77.92 ± 0.59	77.96 ± 0.58	78.10 ± 0.27	0.9382	72.73 ± 0.46	73.38 ± 0.40	73.11 ± 0.32	0.4005
Fasting blood glucose (mg/dL)	96.45 ± 1.27	95.07 ± 0.71	96.37 ± 0.44	0.2174	92.93 ± 0.74	92.69 ± 0.54	93.12 ± 0.39	0.7587
Triglyceride (mg/dL)	157.29 ± 7.20	152.14 ± 6.56	154.02 ± 3.81	0.8597	108.68 ± 3.44	111.79 ± 3.67	104.49 ± 2.20	0.0512
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL)	47.12 ± 0.72	47.77 ± 0.58	47.58 ± 0.29	0.7879	56.80 ± 0.63	58.03 ± 0.56	57.27 ± 0.44	0.2007

Adjusted p value from the general linear model after controlling for age, body mass index, marital status, household income, education level, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, supplement use, energy intake, and menopause status. 1) Clinical criteria of metabolic syndrome was ≥ 3 components of the following: Abdominal obesity (waist ≥ 90 cm in men, ≥ 85 cm in women modified value for Korean); High blood pressure (≥ 130/85 mmHg); High glucose (≥ 100 mg/dL); High triglyceride (≥ 150 mg/dL); and Low HDL-cholesterol (< 40 mg/dL in men, < 50 mg/dL in women). 2) LS mean ± SE

Table 6.

Metabolic bio-markers of subjects according to the type and frequency of coffee consumption

	Men (n = 2,497)						Women (n = 3,902)
	0 time/day (n = 271)	≤ 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 272)	> 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 111)	≤ 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 1,522)	> 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 321)	Adjusted p-value	0 time/day (n = 564)	≤ 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 737)	> 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 176)	≤ 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 2,184)	> 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 241)	Adjusted p-value
No. of metabolic syndrome components¹⁾	1.41 ± 0.07²⁾	1.34 ± 0.07	1.44 ± 0.11	1.38 ± 0.04	1.35 ± 0.07	0.9264	0.97 ± 0.05	0.97 ± 0.04	0.82 ± 0.06	0.94 ± 0.03	0.93 ± 0.07	0.2675
Waist circumference (cm)	84.80 ± 0.27	85.19 ± 0.25	84.99 ± 0.37	84.82 ± 0.14	85.06 ± 0.26	0.5627	76.26 ± 0.24	76.33 ± 0.22	76.09 ± 0.37	76.48 ± 0.18	76.48 ± 0.31	0.6883
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	117.45 ± 0.79	116.19 ± 0.81	116.06 ± 1.09	116.88 ± 0.37	115.39 ± 0.69	0.1863	110.61 ± 0.66	110.67 ± 0.61	109.20 ± 1.02	110.31 ± 0.45	110.58 ± 0.88	0.7678
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	77.91 ± 0.59	77.52 ± 0.64	79.00 ± 1.00	78.15 ± 0.29	77.82 ± 0.52	0.6434	72.72 ± 0.46	73.33 ± 0.45	73.53 ± 0.76	73.09 ± 0.33	73.25 ± 0.68	0.7489
Fasting blood glucose (mg/dL)	96.49 ± 1.27	95.43 ± 0.76	94.22 ± 1.35	96.54 ± 0.47	95.34 ± 0.81	0.3186	92.92 ± 0.73	92.86 ± 0.61	91.93 ± 0.84	93.08 ± 0.39	93.41 ± 1.03	0.7355
Triglyceride (mg/dL)	157.34 ± 7.18	148.24 ± 6.97	161.22 ± 14.00	155.65 ± 4.16	144.11 ± 6.47	0.4318	108.84 ± 3.48	114.15 ± 4.20	101.98 ± 4.40	104.44 ± 2.37	105.35 ± 4.34	0.0813
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL)	47.15 ± 0.72	48.03 ± 0.68	47.15 ± 1.06	47.76 ± 0.31	46.51 ± 0.58	0.2549	56.77 ± 0.64	57.54 ± 0.63	60.06 ± 1.03	57.30 ± 0.48	56.97 ± 0.87	0.0669

Table 7.

ORs (95% CIs) of metabolic bio-markers risk according to the type of coffee consumption

	Men (n = 2,497)			Women (n = 3,902)
	Non-coffee	Black coffee	3-in-1 coffee	Non-coffee	Black coffee	3-in-1 coffee
	(n = 271)	(n = 383)	(n = 1,843)	(n = 564)	(n = 913)	(n = 2,425)
Metabolic syndrome¹⁾
% of cases	15.62	20.48	22.20	8.01	9.74	10.95
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	0.706 (0.410, 1.216)	0.748 (0.478, 1.171)	ref	1.196 (0.769, 1.860)	0.870 (0.588, 1.287)
OR 2 (95% CI)	1.417 (0.822, 2.442)	ref	1.060 (0.727, 1.545)	0.836 (0.538, 1.301)	ref	0.728 (0.527, 1.006)
Abdominal obesity
% of cases	15.83	30.80	26.09	13.31	13.74	17.27
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	1.763 (0.861, 3.609)	1.223 (0.655, 2.281)	ref	0.765 (0.449, 1.304)	0.902 (0.567, 1.436)
OR 2 (95% CI)	0.567 (0.277, 1.161)	ref	0.693 (0.441, 1.090)	1.308 (0.767, 2.228)	ref	1.180 (0.814, 1.709)
High blood pressure
% of cases	23.60	26.26	28.35	8.85	12.51	13.21
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	0.801 (0.515, 1.246)	0.853 (0.589, 1.235)	ref	1.301 (0.906, 1.870)	1.131 (0.808, 1.582)
OR 2 (95% CI)	1.249 (0.803, 1.943)	ref	1.065 (0.792, 1.432)	0.768 (0.535, 1.104)	ref	0.869 (0.660, 1.145)
High glucose
% of cases	19.06	21.25	29.14	14.49	14.60	17.29
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	0.763 (0.487, 1.195)	0.944 (0.661, 1.349)	ref	0.951 (0.669, 1.351)	0.913 (0.664, 1.255)
OR 2 (95% CI)	1.310 (0.837, 2.052)	ref	1.237 (0.905, 1.690)	1.052 (0.740, 1.495)	ref	0.960 (0.758, 1.217)
High triglyceride
% of cases	30.21	37.86	39.41	12.77	14.47	14.91
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	0.972 (0.660, 1.434)	0.951 (0.683, 1.325)	ref	1.089 (0.765, 1.551)	0.832 (0.614, 1.129)
OR 2 (95% CI)	1.028 (0.697, 1.516)	ref	0.978 (0.742, 1.290)	0.918 (0.645, 1.307)	ref	0.764 (0.592, 0.986)
Low HDL-cholesterol
% of cases	19.37	22.55	22.56	31.75	28.13	34.84
OR 1 (95% CI)	ref	0.985 (0.605, 1.603)	0.878 (0.582, 1.323)	ref	0.918 (0.691, 1.218)	1.032 (0.816, 1.306)
OR 2 (95% CI)	1.016 (0.624, 1.654)	ref	0.891 (0.650, 1.223)	1.090 (0.821, 1.447)	ref	1.125 (0.923, 1.371)

OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval OR 1; when ref is Non-coffee; OR 2; when ref is Black coffee ORs were adjusted for age, body mass index, marital status, household income, education level, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, supplement use, energy intake, and menopause status. 1) Clinical criteria of metabolic syndrome was ≥ 3 components of the following: Abdominal obesity (waist ≥ 90 cm in men, ≥ 85 cm in women modified value for Korean); High blood pressure (≥ 130/85 mmHg); High glucose (≥ 100 mg/dL); High triglyceride (≥ 150 mg/dL); and Low HDL-cholesterol (< 40 mg/dL in men, < 50 mg/dL in women).

Table 8.

ORs (95% CIs) of metabolic bio-markers risk according to the type and frequency of coffee consumption

	Men (n = 2,497)					Women (n = 3,902)
	0 time/day (n = 271)	≤ 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 272)	> 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 111)	≤ 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 1,522)	> 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 321)	0 time/day (n = 564)	≤ 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 737)	> 2 time/day of black coffee (n = 176)	≤ 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 2,184)	> 2 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee (n = 241)
Metabolic syndrome¹⁾
% of cases	15.62	18.46	25.36	21.50	25.66	8.01	10.49	6.58	10.91	11.24
OR (95% CI)	ref	0.571 (0.309, 1.055)	1.057 (0.557, 2.005)	0.743 (0.473, 1.168)	0.805 (0.474, 1.369)	ref	1.251 (0.799, 1.960)	0.933 (0.403, 2.157)	0.856 (0.577, 1.270)	1.030 (0.499, 2.125)
Abdominal obesity
% of cases	15.83	31.4	29.34	25.75	27.78	13.31	14.46	10.69	17.01	19.57
OR (95% CI)	ref	1.765 (0.841, 3.703)	1.746 (0.696, 4.382)	1.231 (0.658, 2.301)	1.159 (0.539, 2.493)	ref	0.768 (0.446, 1.324)	0.744 (0.293, 1.890)	0.861 (0.540, 1.372)	1.450 (0.654, 3.212)
High blood pressure
% of cases	23.60	24.37	30.83	28.95	25.40	8.85	13.21	9.56	13.51	10.55
OR (95% CI)	ref	0.726 (0.444, 1.187)	0.968 (0.557, 1.682)	0.894 (0.618, 1.295)	0.633 (0.393, 1.018)	ref	1.349 (0.928, 1.961)	1.070 (0.554, 2.064)	1.143 (0.817, 1.599)	0.986 (0.551, 1.765)
High glucose
% of cases	19.06	21.58	20.46	28.66	31.46	14.49	15.56	10.52	17.43	16.05
OR (95% CI)	ref	0.822 (0.510, 1.323)	0.644 (0.344, 1.203)	0.941 (0.656, 1.349)	0.949 (0.613, 1.471)	ref	1.005 (0.700, 1.442)	0.709 (0.396, 1.269)	0.910 (0.663, 1.249)	0.926 (0.550, 1.560)
High triglyceride
% of cases	30.21	35.69	43.13	38.38	44.44	12.77	15.38	10.61	14.72	16.66
OR (95% CI)	ref	0.905 (0.583, 1.405)	1.149 (0.682, 1.935)	0.951 (0.682, 1.325)	0.975 (0.648, 1.469)	ref	1.158 (0.810, 1.655)	0.795 (0.416, 1.520)	0.821 (0.604, 1.115)	0.935 (0.551, 1.584)
Low HDL-cholesterol
% of cases	19.37	21.49	25.11	21.53	27.63	31.75	29.59	21.93	35.32	30.65
OR (95% CI)	ref	0.914 (0.530, 1.577)	1.176 (0.656, 2.111)	0.857 (0.570, 1.289)	1.033 (0.622, 1.716)	ref	0.970 (0.723, 1.302)	0.689 (0.433, 1.098)	1.044 (0.824, 1.322)	0.892 (0.595, 1.336)

OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval ORs were adjusted for age, body mass index, marital status, household income, education level, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, supplement use, energy intake, and menopause status. 1) Clinical criteria of metabolic syndrome was ≥ 3 components of the following: Abdominal obesity (waist ≥ 90 cm in men, ≥ 85 cm in women modified value for Korean); High blood pressure (≥ 130/85 mmHg); High glucose (≥ 100 mg/dL); High triglyceride (≥ 150 mg/dL); and Low HDL-cholesterol (< 40 mg/dL in men, < 50 mg/dL in women).

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