Journal List > J Nutr Health > v.52(5) > 1136451

TOOLS
Kim and Chung: Associations of the eating alone behavior with nutrient intake, obesity and metabolic syndrome in middle-aged adults based on the 2013 ~ 2017 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Research Article

Journal of Nutrition and Health 2019; 52(5): 435-448.

Published online: 30 October 2019

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4163/jnh.2019.52.5.435

Associations of the eating alone behavior with nutrient intake, obesity and metabolic syndrome in middle-aged adults based on the 2013 ~ 2017 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Hyun Kyung Kim, Jayong Chung

Department of Food and Nutrition, College of Human Ecology, Kyunghee University, Seoul 02447, Korea.

To whom correspondence should be addressed. tel: +82-2-961-0977, jchung@khu.ac.kr

Received 23 August 2019       Revised 10 October 2019       Accepted 14 October 2019

© 2019 The Korean Nutrition Society

The Korean Nutrition Society

(open-access):

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Purpose

This study examined the changes in the nutrient intake and the prevalences of obesity and metabolic syndrome according to the eating alone behavior in middle-aged men and women.

Methods

The data from the 2013 ~ 2017 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were analyzed. A total of 7,728 adults (3,404 male, 4,324 female) aged 40 ~ 64 years old were included. The subjects were classified into three groups according to the number of times eating alone per day (0, 1 ~ 2, and 3 times/day). Dietary data were collected by a 1-day 24-h recall. The nutrient intakes were compared among the three groups. Survey logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine the association of the eating alone behavior with obesity and metabolic syndrome, adjusting for the related confounding variables.

Results

In men, eating alone was associated significantly with a lower intake of potassium (p-for-trend = 0.048) and lower intake of calories from protein (p-for-trend = 0.04). In women, the proportion of subjects consuming energy less than 75% of the estimated energy requirement (p = 0.001) and less than the estimated adequate requirement of riboflavin (p < 0.001) differed significantly according to the eating alone behavior. The eating alone behavior was positively associated with an increased risk of developing metabolic syndrome (p-for-trend = 0.033), increased blood pressure (p-for-trend < 0.001), and increased waist circumference (p-for-trend = 0.004). On the other hand, in women, however, the eating alone behavior was associated with a decreased risks of developing obesity (p-for-trend = 0.02). No association was found between the eating alone behavior and the risk of metabolic syndrome in women.

Conclusion

These results suggest that the eating alone behavior is a risk factor for the development of metabolic syndrome in middle-aged Korean men.

Keywords: eating alone, behavior, metabolic syndrome, middle-aged adults, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Figures and Tables

Fig. 1

The prevalence of insufficiency in nutrient consumption according to eating alone behavior in male and female. 1) The prevalence was calculated based on the proportion of subjects consuming less than 75% of estimated energy requirement (EER) for energy or consuming less than estimated adequate requirement (EAR) for vitamin A, riboflavin, calcium or iron. 2) p-values were calculated via χ2-test, and the p-values less than 0.05 were designated as “*”. 3) Overall insufficiency in nutrient consumption was defined as subjects consuming energy less than < 75% EER and consuming all other nutrients (vitamin A, riboflavin, calcium and iron) less than EAR [23].

jnh-52-435-g001
Table 1

General characteristics of participants according to eating alone behavior in male and female1)

jnh-52-435-i001

1) Data are presented as mean ± S.E (standard error) or n (%).

2) Total numbers in some variables are different due to missing values.

3) p-values are calculated via survey regression for continuous variables or via χ2 test for categorical variables.

Table 2

Nutrient intake according to eating alone behavior in male and female1)

jnh-52-435-i002

1) Values are adjusted mean ± S.E (standard error).

2) p for trends were calculated via survey regression adjusted for age, income, education, economic activity, residence, smoking, alcohol consumption and physical activity.

Table 3

Nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR) and mean adequacy ratio (MAR) according to eating alone behavior in male and female1)

jnh-52-435-i003

1) Values are adjusted mean ± S.E (standard error).

2) p for trends were calculated via survey regression adjusted for age, income, education, economic activity, residence, smoking, alcohol consumption and physical activity.

Table 4

BMI and metabolic syndrome components according to eating alone behavior in male and female1)

jnh-52-435-i004

1) Values are adjusted mean ± S.E (standard error).

2) p for trends were calculated via survey regression adjusted for age, income, education, economic activity, residence, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity and BMI (except for BMI).

Table 5

Crude and multivariable adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals1) for obesity and metabolic syndrome (including its individual components) according to eating alone behavior in male and female2)

jnh-52-435-i005

1) Odds ratio and 95% confidence interval were calculated via survey logistic regression analyses.

2) Adjusted for age, income, education, economic activity, residence, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity and BMI (except for obesity).

Notes

This report was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government, NRF-2017R1A2B1009697.

References

1. Lee EJ, Lee KR. Comparison of solo eating perception and dietary behaviors according to gender in the Seoul and Gyonggi-do regions. J Korean Soc Food Cult. 2018; 33(6):531–542.
2. Statistics Korea. Current status and characteristics of single person household in population and housing census. Daejeon: Statistics Korea;2018.
3. Yeon JY, Bae YJ. Evaluation of the meal variety with eating breakfast together as a family in Korean children: based on 2013-2015 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Nutr Health. 2018; 51(1):50–59.
crossref
4. Kwon JE, Park HJ, Lim HS, Chyun JH. The relationships of dietary behavior, food intake, and life satisfaction with family meal frequency in middle school students. Korean J Food Cult. 2013; 28(3):272–281.
crossref
5. Tani Y, Kondo N, Takagi D, Saito M, Hikichi H, Ojima T, et al. Combined effects of eating alone and living alone on unhealthy dietary behaviors, obesity and underweight in older Japanese adults: results of the JAGES. Appetite. 2015; 95:1–8.
crossref
6. Kimura Y, Wada T, Okumiya K, Ishimoto Y, Fukutomi E, Kasahara Y, et al. Eating alone among community-dwelling Japanese elderly: association with depression and food diversity. J Nutr Health Aging. 2012; 16(8):728–731.
crossref
7. Tani Y, Kondo N, Noma H, Miyaguni Y, Saito M, Kondo K. Eating alone yet living with others is associated with mortality in older men: the JAGES Cohort Survey. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2018; 73(7):1330–1334.
crossref
8. Sung SJ, Kwon S. Effect of eating with family or alone on the self-rated mental or physical health: the elementary school children in Daejeon area. Korean J Community Nutr. 2010; 15(2):206–226.
9. Lee SA, Park EC, Ju YJ, Nam JY, Kim TH. Is one's usual dinner companion associated with greater odds of depression? Using data from the 2014 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2016; 62(6):560–568.
crossref
10. Song EG, Yoon YS, Yang YJ, Lee ES, Lee JH, Lee JY, et al. Factors associated with eating alone in Korean adults: findings from the sixth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2014. Korean J Fam Pract. 2017; 7(5):698–706.
crossref
11. Statistics Korea. Korean social trends 2015. 2015.
12. Lim S, Shin H, Song JH, Kwak SH, Kang SM, Yoon JW, et al. Increasing prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Korea: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 1998–2007. Diabetes Care. 2011; 34(6):1323–1328.
crossref
13. Tran BT, Jeong BY, Oh JK. The prevalence trend of metabolic syndrome and its components and risk factors in Korean adults: results from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008–2013. BMC Public Health. 2017; 17(1):71.
crossref
14. Park E, Kim J. Gender- and age-specific prevalence of metabolic syndrome among Korean adults: analysis of the fifth Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Cardiovasc Nurs. 2015; 30(3):256–266.
15. Eckel RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ. The metabolic syndrome. Lancet. 2005; 365(9468):1415–1428.
crossref
16. He D, Xi B, Xue J, Huai P, Zhang M, Li J. Association between leisure time physical activity and metabolic syndrome: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Endocrine. 2014; 46(2):231–240.
crossref
17. Oh SW, Yoon YS, Lee ES, Kim WK, Park C, Lee S, et al. Association between cigarette smoking and metabolic syndrome: the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Diabetes Care. 2005; 28(8):2064–2066.
crossref
18. Yoon YS, Oh SW, Baik HW, Park HS, Kim WY. Alcohol consumption and the metabolic syndrome in Korean adults: the 1998 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004; 80(1):217–224.
crossref
19. Calton EK, James AP, Pannu PK, Soares MJ. Certain dietary patterns are beneficial for the metabolic syndrome: reviewing the evidence. Nutr Res. 2014; 34(7):559–568.
crossref
20. Kim MR, Kim HJ, Kim JH, Park BJ. Sex difference in the relationship between evening meal-sharing and prevalence of metabolic syndrome: the 2013-2014 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Korean J Fam Pract. 2018; 8(1):125–130.
crossref
21. Kim CK, Kim HJ, Chung HK, Shin D. Eating alone is differentially associated with the risk of metabolic syndrome in Korean men and women. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018; 15(5):E1020.
crossref
22. Ministry of Health and Welfare, The Korean Nutrition Society. Dietary reference intakes for Koreans 2015. Seoul: The Korean Nutrition Society;2016.
23. Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2017: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VII-2). Cheongju: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2018.
24. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR, Donato KA, Eckel RH, Franklin BA, et al. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute scientific statement. Curr Opin Cardiol. 2006; 21(1):1–6.
25. Lee SY, Park HS, Kim DJ, Han JH, Kim SM, Cho GJ, et al. Appropriate waist circumference cutoff points for central obesity in Korean adults. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2007; 75(1):72–80.
crossref
26. Kim SR, Kim OK, Yun KE, Khang YH, Cho HJ. Socioeconomic factors associated with initiating and quitting cigarette smoking among Korean men. Korean J Fam Med. 2009; 30(6):415–425.
crossref
27. Kim SY, Seo YJ, Kim MH, Choi MK. Eating habit and stress status according to exercising habits of middle-aged adults in Chungnam. Korean J Food Nutr. 2016; 29(1):43–51.
crossref
28. Kutsuma A, Nakajima K, Suwa K. Potential association between breakfast skipping and concomitant late-night-dinner eating with metabolic syndrome and proteinuria in the Japanese population. Scientifica (Cairo). 2014; 2014:253581.
crossref
29. Odegaard AO, Jacobs DR Jr, Steffen LM, Van Horn L, Ludwig DS, Pereira MA. Breakfast frequency and development of metabolic risk. Diabetes Care. 2013; 36(10):3100–3106.
crossref
30. Kim S, Goh E, Lee DR, Park MS. The association between eating frequency and metabolic syndrome. Korean J Health Promot. 2011; 11(1):9–17.
31. Shin A, Lim SY, Sung J, Shin HR, Kim J. Dietary intake, eating habits, and metabolic syndrome in Korean men. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009; 109(4):633–640.
crossref
32. Lee Y, Oh YJ, Cho W, Jo PK. Differences in solo eating perceptions and dietary behaviors of university students by gender. J Korean Diet Assoc. 2015; 21(1):57–71.
crossref
33. Zhang Z, Cogswell ME, Gillespie C, Fang J, Loustalot F, Dai S, et al. Association between usual sodium and potassium intake and blood pressure and hypertension among US adults: NHANES 2005-2010. PLoS One. 2013; 8(10):e75289.
crossref
34. Haddy FJ, Vanhoutte PM, Feletou M. Role of potassium in regulating blood flow and blood pressure. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2006; 290(3):R546–R552.
crossref
35. Aburto NJ, Hanson S, Gutierrez H, Hooper L, Elliott P, Cappuccio FP. Effect of increased potassium intake on cardiovascular risk factors and disease: systematic review and meta-analyses. BMJ. 2013; 346:f1378.
crossref
36. Cappuccio FP, MacGregor GA. Does potassium supplementation lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis of published trials. J Hypertens. 1991; 9(5):465–473.
crossref
37. Whelton PK, He J, Cutler JA, Brancati FL, Appel LJ, Follmann D, et al. Effects of oral potassium on blood pressure. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. JAMA. 1997; 277(20):1624–1632.
38. Cai X, Li X, Fan W, Yu W, Wang S, Li Z, et al. Potassium and obesity/metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence. Nutrients. 2016; 8(4):183.
crossref
39. Mariosa LS, Ribeiro-Filho FF, Batista MC, Hirota AH, Borges RL, Ribeiro AB, et al. Abdominal obesity is associated with potassium depletion and changes in glucose homeostasis during diuretic therapy. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2008; 10(6):443–449.
crossref
40. Ashcroft FM. ATP-sensitive potassium channelopathies: focus on insulin secretion. J Clin Invest. 2005; 115(8):2047–2058.
crossref
41. Chatterjee R, Yeh HC, Shafi T, Selvin E, Anderson C, Pankow JS, et al. Serum and dietary potassium and risk of incident type 2 diabetes mellitus: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Arch Intern Med. 2010; 170(19):1745–1751.
crossref
42. Lee SY, Lee SY, Ko YE, Ly SY. Potassium intake of Korean adults: based on 2007-2010 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Nutr Health. 2017; 50(1):98–110.
43. Song S, Lee JE, Song WO, Paik HY, Song Y. Carbohydrate intake and refined-grain consumption are associated with metabolic syndrome in the Korean adult population. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2014; 114(1):54–62.
crossref
44. Moghaddam E, Vogt JA, Wolever TM. The effects of fat and protein on glycemic responses in nondiabetic humans vary with waist circumference, fasting plasma insulin, and dietary fiber intake. J Nutr. 2006; 136(10):2506–2511.
crossref
45. Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR, Fulgoni VL 3rd. Higher-protein diets are associated with higher HDL cholesterol and lower BMI and waist circumference in US adults. J Nutr. 2015; 145(3):605–614.
crossref
46. Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Nieuwenhuizen A, Tomé D, Soenen S, Westerterp KR. Dietary protein, weight loss, and weight maintenance. Annu Rev Nutr. 2009; 29(1):21–41.
crossref
47. Layman DK, Clifton P, Gannon MC, Krauss RM, Nuttall FQ. Protein in optimal health: heart disease and type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008; 87(5):1571S–1575S.
crossref
48. Julibert A, Bibiloni MD, Bouzas C, Martínez-González MA, Salas-Salvadó J, Corella D, et al. Total and subtypes of dietary fat intake and its association with components of the metabolic syndrome in a Mediterranean population at high cardiovascular risk. Nutrients. 2019; 11(7):E1493.
crossref
TOOLS
ORCID iDs

Hyun Kyung Kim
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6088-6016

Jayong Chung
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2035-6819

Similar articles