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Abstract
Purpose
The aim of this study was to analyze the sodium contents of representative Korean foods high in sodium and develop them as a fundamental resource for setting the standard amount of sodium in foods. Methods: A total of 480 representative Korean foods high in sodium were collected from households, foodservice establishments, and restaurants in four regions (Capital region, Chungcheong & Gangwon Province, Gyeongsang province, and Jeolla province) and analyzed their sodium content. Results: The sodium content (per 100 g) of food categorized by food group was highest in kimchi and braised food (p<0.001), and the sodium content of each food was highest in stir-fried anchovies (1,896.6 mg) followed by braised burdock and lotus roots (820.6 mg) and picked onions (809.3 mg) (p<0.001). However, the sodium content per portion of food was highest in steamed short ribs (1,429.6 mg) from home meals (p<0.001), Bibimbap, (1,074.1 mg) and steamed short ribs (838.8 mg) from foodservice (p<0.001), spicy beef soup (3,273.2 mg), and pollack stew (2,930.2 mg) from restaurants (p<0.001). The sodium content per 100 g and portion of soups and stews from restaurants was significantly higher than that of home meals and foodservice meals (p<0.001), and the sodium content per portion of steam dishes and stir-fried dishes from home meals was significantly higher than that of foodservice meals (p<0.05). Conclusions: These results suggest that developing and using low-sodium soybean sauces & soybean paste and kimchi is needed in an effort to reduce sodium intake. In addition, determination of the sodium contents of representative Korean foods known to be high in sodium is expected to be useful in establishing guidelines for reduction of sodium content.
References
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Table 1.
A recognition of validity on the representative Korean food high in sodium of the housewives n (%)
Table 2.
A recognition of validity on the representative Korean food high in sodium of the restaurant owners n (%
Table 3.
Comparison of the sodium content of the representative Korean food high in sodium by eating place
| Sodium content | Home meal | Foodservice | Restaurant | F-value | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (mg/100 g) | (n = 160) | (n = 160) | (n = 160) | (n = 480) | |
| Bibim bap (n = 30) | 244.1 ± 51.1AB | 287.5 ± 74.7A | 276.2 ± 81.1A | 1.031 | 269.3 ± 70.3A |
| Seaweed soup (n = 30) | 252.9 ± 76.4AB | 248.8 ± 44.9A | 297.4 ± 87.9AB | 1.399 | 266.4 ± 73.1A |
| Soybean paste soup (n = 30) | 302.6 ± 118.5aA | 268.9 ± 64.8aA | 419.4 ± 92.6bAB | 6.984∗∗ | 330.3 ± 112.4AB |
| Spicy beef soup (n = 30) | 262.0 ± 68.1aAB | 262.4 ± 23.5aA | 467.6 ± 124.3bABCD | 20.438∗∗∗ | 330.7 ± 126.9AB |
| Pollack Stew (n = 30) | 174.3 ± 39.7aA | 228.9 ± 57.6aA | 366.3 ± 108.2bABC | 17.685∗∗∗ | 256.5 ± 109.1A |
| Soybean paste stew (n = 30) | 347.9 ± 110.8aABC | 273.1 ± 97.4aA | 512.9 ± 149.1bBCD | 10.271∗∗∗ | 377.9 ± 155.0AB |
| Spicy soft tofu stew (n = 30) | 222.0 ± 89.4AB | 263.3 ± 88.0A | 309.8 ± 112.6AB | 2.041 | 265.1 ± 100.7A |
| Steamed short ribs (n = 30) | 389.0 ± 126.1BC | 366.4 ± 92.6AB | 449.1 ± 153.1ABCD | 1.144 | 401.5 ± 127.0B |
| Barbecued beef (n = 30) | 331.7 ± 145.2ABC | 323.8 ± 103.6A | 415.5 ± 104.3BC | 1.814 | 357.0 ± 122.6B |
| Stir-fried pork (n = 30) | 379.0 ± 117.7BC | 366.1 ± 82.0AB | 463.5 ± 156.4ABCD | 1.863 | 402.9 ± 126.1B |
| Stir-fried anchovy (n = 30) | 2,113.2 ± 527.6E | 1,801.1 ± 552.2C | 1,775.5 ± 513.1E | 1.253 | 1,896.6 ± 535.8E |
| Braised mackerel (n = 30) | 386.5 ± 100.3BC | 413.3 ± 103.9AB | 436.8 ± 157.4ABCD | 0.418 | 412.2 ± 120.8B |
| Braised lotus root (n = 30) | 661.2 ± 243.5D | 849.8 ± 564.9C | 950.9 ± 420.0E | 1.169 | 820.6 ± 432.6D |
| Pickled onions (n = 30) | 637.9 ± 221.1aD | 867.0 ± 268.3abC | 923.0 ± 281.3bE | 3.424∗ | 809.3 ± 279.0D |
| Cabbage kimchi (n = 30) | 679.4 ± 147.4D | 582.6 ± 94.9B | 651.0 ± 165.7D | 1.275 | 637.6 ± 140.6C |
| Radish kimchi (n = 30) | 506.4 ± 155.7CD | 566.9 ± 137.0B | 550.9 ± 179.8CD | 0.391 | 541.4 ± 155.1C |
| F-value | 62.452∗∗∗ | 32.724∗∗∗ | 30.020∗∗∗ | 107.854∗∗∗ |
∗∗∗ p < 0.001 by ANOVA abc: Values with the different small letter superscript are significantly different among row by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05. ABC: Values with the different capital letter superscript are significantly different among column by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05.
Table 4.
Sodium content of the representative Korean food high in sodium by eating place
| Sodium content (mg/portion) | Home meal (n = 160) | Foodservice (n = 160) | Restaurant (n = 160) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portion | Sodium | portion | Sodium | portion | Sodium | F-value | |
| size (g) | (mg/portion) | size (g) | (mg/portion) | size (g) | (mg/portion) | ||
| Bibim bap (n = 30) | 412.6 | 1,026.7 ± 367.9G | 372.5 | 1,074.1 ± 426.7E | 500.0 | 1,381.1 ± 405.6E | 2.305 |
| Seaweed soup (n = 30) | 239.0 | 617.4 ± 250.9CD | 229.5 | 567.8 ± 166.4CD | 250.0 | 743.5 ± 219.7BC | 1.772 |
| Soybean paste soup (n = 30) | 251.8 | 737.0 ± 283.7aCDEFG | 221.7 | 598.6 ± 175.3aCD | 250.0 | 1,048.6 ± 231.4bCDE | 9.672∗∗ |
| Spicy beef soup (n = 30) | 375.4 | 992.4 ± 434.2aFG | 293.3 | 762.7 ± 187.4aCD | 700.0 | 3,273.2 ± 870.4bG | 58.895∗∗∗ |
| Pollack Stew (n = 30) | 360.3 | 636.8 ± 234.7aCDE | 293.8 | 660.1 ± 181.3aCD | 800.0 | 2,930.2 ± 865.2bG | 62.245∗∗∗ |
| Soybean paste stew (n = 30) | 266.6 | 942.9 ± 376.1aEFG | 253.3 | 683.6 ± 235.7aCD | 400.0 | 2,051.5 ± 596.3bF | 28.660∗∗∗ |
| Spicy soft tofu stew (n = 30) | 304.4 | 679.3 ± 335.7aCDEF | 268.6 | 716.3 ± 298.6aCD | 400.0 | 1,239.4 ± 450.3bDE | 7.274∗∗ |
| Steamed short ribs (n = 30) | 371.5 | 1,429.6 ± 494.0bH | 229.4 | 838.8 ± 297.4aDE | 250.0 | 1,122.8 ± 382.8abCDE | 5.468∗ |
| Barbecued beef (n = 30) | 276.7 | 922.7 ± 442.2DEFG | 190.4 | 619.1 ± 273.5CD | 200.0 | 831.0 ± 208.5C | 2.317 |
| Stir-fried pork (n = 30) | 255.9 | 961.9 ± 303.3FG | 204.1 | 769.3 ± 375.7CD | 200.0 | 927.0 ± 312.9CD | 0.955 |
| Stir-fried anchovy (n = 30) | 32.6 | 680.0 ± 201.7bCDEF | 40.9 | 776.0 ± 497.7bCD | 20.0 | 355.1 ± 102.6aA | 4.884∗ |
| Braised mackerel (n = 30) | 231.3 | 888.5 ± 253.0bEFG | 186.4 | 769.3 ± 286.6bCD | 100.0 | 436.8 ± 157.4aAB | 9.618∗∗ |
| Braised lotus root (n = 30) | 66.5 | 455.7 ± 332.1BC | 57.8 | 484.2 ± 386.1BC | 30.0 | 285.3 ± 126.0A | 1.261 |
| Pickled onions (n = 30) | 48.3 | 305.7 ± 111.2aAB | 67.8 | 592.9 ± 259.3bCD | 20.0 | 184.6 ± 56.3aA | 15.944∗∗∗ |
| Cabbage kimchi (n = 30) | 40.0 | 271.7 ± 59.0abAB | 40.0 | 233.0 ± 38.0aAB | 50.0 | 325.5 ± 82.8bA | 5.488∗ |
| Radish kimchi (n = 30) | 30.0 | 151.9 ± 46.7aA | 30.0 | 170.1 ± 41.1aA | 50.0 | 275.4 ± 89.9bA | 11.165∗∗∗ |
| F-value | 11.306∗∗∗ | 5.901∗∗∗ | 51.919∗∗∗ | ||||
∗∗∗ p < 0.001 by ANOVA abc: Values with the different small letter superscript are significantly different among row by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05. ABC: Values with the different capital letter superscript are significantly different among column by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05.
Table 5.
Comparison of the sodium content of the representative Korean food group high in sodium by eating place
| Sodium content | Home meal | Foodservice | Restaurant | F-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (mg/100 g) | (n = 140) | (n = 140) | (n = 140) | |
| Soup/Stew (n = 180) | 260.3 ± 100.9aAB | 257.6 ± 66.3aA | 395.6 ± 135.2bAB | 34.111∗∗∗ |
| Steamed dishes (n = 30) | 389.0 ± 126.1C | 366.4 ± 92.6A | 449.1 ± 153.1B | 1.144 |
| Stir-fried dishes† (n = 60) | 355.4 ± 130.9aBC | 345.0 ± 93.5aA | 439.5 ± 131.7bB | 3.730∗ |
| Braised dishes (n = 60) | 523.8 ± 229.6D | 631.6 ± 454.3B | 693.9 ± 406.0C | 1.047 |
| Kimchi (n = 90) | 607.9 ± 187.3D | 672.2 ± 225.0B | 708.3 ± 262.1C | 1.508 |
| F-value | 28.002∗∗∗ | 22.735∗∗∗ | 14.003∗∗∗ |
∗∗∗ p < 0.001 by ANOVA abc: Values with the different small letter superscript are significantly different among row by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05. ABC: Values with the different capital letter superscript are significantly different among column by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05.
Table 6.
Sodium content per serving size of dish groups by eating place
| Sodium content (mg/portion) | Home meal (n = 140) | Foodservice (n = 140) | Restaurant (n = 140) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| portion | Sodium | portion | Sodium | portion | Sodium | F-value | |
| size (g) | (mg/portion) | size (g) | (mg/portion) | size (g) | (mg/portion) | ||
| Soup/Stew (n = 180) | 299.6 | 767.7 ± 346.1aBC | 260.0 | 664.8 ± 214.1aBC | 466.7 | 1,881.1 ± 1,121.2bC | 57.558∗∗∗ |
| Steamed dishes (n = 30) | 371.5 | 1,429.6 ± 494.6bE | 229.4 | 838.8 ± 297.4aC | 250.0 | 1,122.8 ± 382.8abB | 3.173∗ |
| Stir-fried dishes† (n = 60) | 188.4 | 942.3 ± 369.6bCD | 145.1 | 694.2 ± 329.0aBC | 140.0 | 879.0 ± 263.4aB | 5.880∗∗ |
| Braised dishes (n = 60) | 148.9 | 672.1 ± 363.2bB | 122.1 | 626.8 ± 361.2bB | 65.0 | 361.1 ± 159.0aA | 5.468∗ |
| Kimchi (n = 90) | 39.4 | 243.1 ± 100.5A | 45.9 | 332.0 ± 240.3A | 40.0 | 261.8 ± 95.6A | 2.568 |
| F-value | 25.279∗∗∗ | 13.242∗∗∗ | 25.571∗∗∗ | ||||
∗∗∗ p < 0.001 by ANOVA abc: Values with the different small letter superscript are significantly different among row by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05. ABC: Values with the different capital letter superscript are significantly different among column by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05.
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