Mi Ock Yoon; Hyun Sook Lee; Kirang Kim; Jae Eun Shim; Ji-Yun Hwang

doi:10.4163/jnh.2017.50.5.504

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Yoon, Lee, Kim, Shim, and Hwang: Development of processed food database using Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data∗

Research Article

J Nutr Health 2017;50(5):504-518.

Published online: 20 January 2017

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4163/jnh.2017.50.5.504

Development of processed food database using Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data^∗

Mi Ock Yoon^1,^∗∗, Hyun Sook Lee^2,^∗∗, Kirang Kim³, Jae Eun Shim⁴, Ji-Yun Hwang^†

¹Nutrition Information Committee, The Korean Nutrition Society, Seoul 06130, Korea

²Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dongseo University, Busan 47011, Korea

³Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dankook University, Gyeonggido 16890, Korea

⁴Department of Food and Nutrition, Daejeon University, Daejeon 34520, Korea

⁵Department of Foodservice Management and Nutrition, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Korea

^†To whom correspondence should be addressed. tel: +82-2-781-7521, E-mail: jiyunhk@smu.ac.kr

^∗ This work was supported by Research Program funded by the Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015E3500300).

^∗∗ These two authors contributed equally to this work.

Received 1 August 2017 Revised 9 August 2017 Accepted 17 October 2017

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Purpose

The objective of this study was to develop a processed foods database (DB) for estimation of processed food intake in the Korean population using data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Survey (KNHANES). Methods: Analytical values of processed foods were collected from food composition tables of national institutions (Development Institute, Rural Development Administration), the US Department of Agriculture, and previously reported scientific journals. Missing or unavailable values were substituted, calculated, or imputed. The nutrient data covered 14 nutrients, including energy, protein, carbohydrates, fat, calcium, phosphorus, iron, sodium, potassium, vitamin A, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and vitamin C. The processed food DB covered a total of 4,858 food items used in the KNHANES. Each analytical value per food item was selected systematically based on the priority criteria of data sources. Results: Level 0 DB was developed based on a list of 8,785 registered processed foods with recipes of ready-to-eat processed foods, one food composition table published by the national institution, and nutrition facts obtained directly from manufacturers or indirectly via web search. Level 1 DB included information of 14 nutrients, and missing or unavailable values were substituted, calculated, or imputed at level 2. Level 3 DB evaluated the newly constructed nutrient DB for processed foods using the 2013 KNHANES. Mean intakes of total food and processed food were 1,551.4 g (males 1,761.8 g, females 1,340.8 g) and 129.4 g (males 169.9 g, females 88.8 g), respectively. Processed foods contributed to nutrient intakes from 5.0% (fiber) to 12.3% (protein) in the Korean population. Conclusion: The newly developed nutrient DB for processed foods contributes to accurate estimation of nutrient intakes in the Korean population. Consistent and regular update and quality control of the DB is needed to obtain accurate estimation of usual intakes using data from the KNHANES.

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Fig. 1.

Overall flow of development of processed food database 1) Rural Development Administration. 8th revision Food Composition Table, 2011, 2) Manufacturer-provided document, 3) Manufacturer's report data, 4) Internet search data, 2015, 5) USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26, 2013

Fig. 2.

Principles of data substitutions for a newly constructed processed food DB

Fig. 3.

Data matching 2013 KNHANES with a new constructed processed food DB

Table 1.

Characteristics of data sources

Data sources	Characteristics of data
RDA (2011)¹⁾	Analytical values (energy, 14 nutrients)
MFDS (2015)²⁾	Values directly reported by manufacturers (8,785 item; 5 nutrients)
USDA (2013)³⁾	Analytical values (energy, 14 nutrients)
CDC (2013)⁴⁾	Ingredients ratio of prepared foods (no nutrient information)
The Korean Nutrition Society (2012)⁵⁾	Analytical, calculated, or imputed values
Internet search or manufacturer-provided documents (2015)⁶⁾	5 nutrients values of nutrition fact labels

¹⁾ Rural Development Administration. 8th revision Food Composition Table, 2011 2) Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, Department o Food and Nutrition Safety Policy. Manufacturer's report data for processed food [document]. 2015 3) United States Development o Agriculture, USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26, 2013 4) Centers for Disease Control & Prevention Division of Health and Nutrition Survey. Ingredients ratio of prepared foods data (2013) 5) The Korean Nutrition Society. Nutrient data base of food (2012) 6) Internet search data or Manufacturer-provided documentations (2015)

Table 2.

Resources and limitations of collected data

Type	Resource	Nutrients	No. of foods	Limitations
Nutrition fact labels	MFDS Nutrition Safety Policy Division	5 including energy ※Trans fats and sugars are included among a total of 9 kinds.	464¹⁾	• Need of data substitution for nutrients which are not included in the nutrition fact labels.
Food Composition Table, 9th ed.	NIAS Functional Food and Nutrition Division	Over 15 including energy	150²⁾ (list checked)	• Under review. Unavailability for public use during the study periods.
Food Composition Table, 8th ed.	NIAS Functional Food and Nutrition Division	Over 15 including energy	182³⁾ 43³⁾	• Limited items. Need of matching for data substitution
Nutrition fact labels	Manufacturers	5 including energy ※Trans fats and sugars are included among a total of 9 kinds.	605⁴⁾	• Including online searching data, indirectly from manufacturers • Need of data substitution for nutrients which are not included in the nutrition fact labels.

¹⁾ Target lists 4,826 cases vs MFDS 8,785 cases after exact product-name matching. 2) 150+α (α: for cereals, some of USDA data used) 3) Target lists 4,826 cases vs RDA 8

^th Food Composition Table (182 cases – matching with cooked/processed food): matching, 0; similar, 43. 4) Direct acquisition from manufacturers: 605 cases (a total of 15 nutrients including energy: 29 cases)

Table 3.

Data calculability according to food types

Food type	Incalculable data	Calculable data
Cookies		O
Breads, rice cakes, dumplings		O
Cocoa products or chocolates		O
Jam		O
Sugars	O
Meat products, fish meat products		O
Soybean curd and starch jelly	O
Oils and fats	O
Noodles		O
Tea	O (leached tea/ liquid tea)	O (solid tea)
Coffee	O
	O
Milk & dairy products	(milk, yogurt/ fermented milk,	O (other milk)
	cheese, butter)
Beverages	O
Food for special dietary uses		O
Soy sauce, salted seafood, dressing/ mayonnaise	O
Seasoned foods (seasonings, sauces)	O
Food glazed with soy sauce or other seasoning	O
Liquor, dried fish	O
Others	O

Table 4.

Number of food according to data processing method for the Level 2 DB

Division	No∗	Food Composition Table		Nutrient labeling (internet)	Manufacturer's documents	Alternative Method	Domestic/ Foreign	Data Source	No. of Foods
Division	No∗	Matching	Similar		Manufacturer's documents	Alternative Method	Domestic/ Foreign	Data Source	No. of Foods
Analytical value	#1	○	–	(not related)	(not related)	Among the 2011 8^th RDA Food Composition Table (analytical data), no matched manufacturer and food name after matching with 182 cooked/processed foods	–	–	0 (150 + α)^†
								RDA ('11)¹⁾	30
								RDA ('10)¹⁾, KHIDI ('05)³⁾	29
								RDA ('09)¹⁾	9
								RDA ('03)¹⁾	10
						Among the 8^th RDA Food Composition Table, similar with nutrition labeling and manufacturer's documents (replacement by food composition table)	Korea	RDA ('01)¹⁾, KHIDI ('05)³⁾	26
							Korea	RDA ('00)¹⁾	25
	#2	–	○	○	○			RDA ('91∼94)¹⁾	176
								MFDS ('96)²⁾	21
								MFDS ('91)²⁾	10
								KNS ('97)⁴⁾, KNIH ('88)⁵⁾	8
							Japan		16
							USDA		17
								subtotal	377
								RDA ('11)¹⁾	3
								RDA ('10)¹⁾	2
Substitution based on data effectiveness						Among the 8^th RDA Food Composition Table, similar with manufacturer's documents (replacement by food composition table)	Korea	RDA ('96,'01,'02)¹⁾, KHIDI ('05)³⁾	4
	#3	–	○	×	○			MFDS ('96)²⁾	5
								KFRI ('96)⁶⁾	5
							Japan		8
							USDA		2
								subtotal	29
								RDA ('11) ¹⁾	119
								RDA ('10)¹⁾	161
								RDA ('86-'99)¹⁾	410
								KNS ('97)⁴⁾	23
						Among the 8^th RDA Food Composition Table, similar with nutrition labeling only (replacement by food composition table)	Korea	KNIH ('77,'80,'83,'88,‘06)⁵⁾	105
							Korea	MFDS (‘96, ‘11)²⁾	322
		#4	–	○	○	×		KFRI ('96)⁶⁾	237
								KNS ('95)⁷⁾	7
								NFRDI ('82, '09)⁸⁾	90
							Japan		101
							USDA		107
								subtotal	1,682

Table 4.

Number of food according to data processing method for the Level 2 DB (continued)

Division	No∗	Food Composition Table		Nutrient labeling (internet)	Manufacturer's documents	Alternative Method	Domestic/ Foreign	Data Source	No. of Foods
Division	No∗	Matching	Similar	Nutrient labeling (internet)	Manufacturer's documents	Alternative Method	Domestic/ Foreign	Data Source	No. of Foods
								RDA ('11)¹⁾	131
								RDA ('10)¹⁾	210
								RDA ('93∼'99)¹⁾	389
						Among the 8^th RDA Food Composition Table, similar without both nutrition labeling and manufacturer's documents (replacement by food composition table)	Korea	NFRDI ('82, '09, 10)⁸⁾ MFDS ('96, '11)²⁾	149 364
Substitution	#5	–	○	×	×			KNS ('95)⁷⁾ KFRI ('96)⁶⁾ KNS ('97)⁴⁾, KNIH ('88)⁵⁾	1 115 47
							Japan		98
							USDA		40
								subtotal	1,544
						Foods with 90–100% mix ratio among DB target lists (with nutrition labeling + manufacturer's documents + composition table)		Caculation	508
Calculation	#6	–	–	○	–			subtotal	508^‡

						Among manufacturer providing data, number of foods with nutrition labeling but without similar food in the RDA Food Composition Table	Korea	Manufacturer	110
	#7	×	×	○	○			subtotal	110
							Korea		615
	#8	×	×	○	×	number of foods with only internet nutrition labeling	Japan USDA		16 20
								subtotal	651
						Additional information data from manufacturers	Korea	Manufacturer	35
Current data use of substitution	#9	×	×	×	○	Additional information data from manufacturers		subtotal	35^$
								RDA ('11)¹⁾	78
								RDA ('10)¹⁾	111
								RDA ('93-'99)¹⁾	52
							Korea	MFDS ('96, '11)²⁾	29
	#10	×	×	×	×	No data source obtained (placement by most similar food)		KNS ('95)⁷⁾ KNS ('97)⁴⁾, KNIH ('88)⁵⁾ KFRI ('96)⁶⁾	4 13 13
							Japan		60
							USDA		70
								subtotal	430
								Total	4,858

¹⁾ Rural Development Administration. Food Composition Table, 1991–1994, 1996, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2010, 2011 2) Ministry of Food and Drug Safety, Department of Food and Nutrition Safety Policy. 1991, 1996, 2011 3) Korea Health Industry Development Institute. Development of nutrient database. Seoul: Korea Health Industry Development Institute; 2005 4) The Korean Nutrition Society, Ministry of Education of Policy Research Project for Foodservice, 1997 5) Korea National Institute of Health, The Report of National Institute of Health, 1977, 1980, 1983, 1988, 2006 6) Korea Food Research Institute / Basic DB Supplement Project for Implementation and Processing of Results of KNHANES, 1996 7) The Korean Nutrition Society, Recommended dietary allowances for Koreans, 1995 8) National Fisheries Research & Development Institue, Chemical composition of marine productS ('1982), Composition of Fisheries Products in KoreA (2009, 2010) ∗Handling methods by data securing status.

^† 2015 9

^th revision (150 cases+α) lists, α: some cereal data of the USDA. Asked for information, but not secured.

^‡ Foods with 90 ∼ 100% mix ratio among DB target lists: 508 (with nutrition labeling + manufacturer's documents+composition table), 103 (with nutrition labeling, without composition table), 94 (with nutrition labeling, without composition table, without manufacturer's documents). Total number of foods except the relevant foods: A total of 4,858 to be established.

^$ Additional information data from manufacturers: 32 (added to the established list of 4,826: a total of 4,858 lists)+manufacturer's document only: 3

Table 5.

Estimation of processed food intakes in the Korean population using the KNHANES VI-1 (2013)

Variables	Total (n = 6,805)				Men (n = 2,966)				Women (n = 3,839)
Variables	Mean	SE	95% CL		Mean	SE	95% CL		Mean	SE	95% CL
Age (yrs)	39.1	0.5	38.2	40.0	38.0	0.5	37.1	39.0	40.2	0.6	39.1	41.3
Nutrients of total intakes
Food intake (g)	1,551.4	17.3	1,517.3	1,585.5	1,761.8	25.8	1,710.8	1,812.8	1,340.8	15.0	1,311.3	1,370.4
Total Energy (kcal)	2,079.0	18.5	2,042.5	2,115.4	2,394.4	26.5	2,342.1	2,446.8	1,763.2	18.1	1,727.5	1,798.9
Carbohydrate (g)	313.2	2.4	308.6	317.9	347.0	3.2	340.6	353.4	279.4	2.7	274.2	284.7
Protein (g)	73.8	0.9	72.0	75.5	85.9	1.3	83.4	88.4	61.6	0.9	59.9	63.4
Fat (g)	47.6	0.8	46.0	49.2	55.2	1.2	52.9	57.5	39.9	0.8	38.4	41.5
Dietary fiber (g)	7.2	0.1	7.0	7.4	7.8	0.2	7.4	8.1	6.6	0.1	6.3	6.9
Exclusively with matching food¹⁾		⁾
Nutrients of processed food intakes
Food intake (g)	129.4	4.0	121.4	137.3	169.9	6.7	156.6	183.2	88.8	3.4	82.1	95.4
Total Energy (kcal)	183.5	6.6	170.5	196.5	235.8	9.1	217.8	253.7	131.1	7.6	116.2	146.1
Carbohydrate (g)	21.6	0.9	19.9	23.3	25.4	1.1	23.3	27.6	17.8	1.1	15.7	20.0
Protein (g)	3.5	0.1	3.2	3.7	4.0	0.2	3.6	4.3	3.0	0.1	2.7	3.2
Fat (g)	5.5	0.2	5.0	5.9	6.3	0.3	5.8	6.9	4.6	0.3	4.0	5.2
Dietary fiber (g)	0.4	0.0	0.3	0.4	0.5	0.0	0.4	0.5	0.3	0.0	0.3	0.4
Percentage of processed food intakes (%)
Food intake (%)	8.2	0.2	7.8	8.7	9.4	0.3	8.8	10.0	7.1	0.3	6.6	7.6
Total Energy (%)	8.5	0.2	8.1	8.9	9.6	0.3	9.1	10.2	7.4	0.3	6.9	7.9
Carbohydrate (%)	5.5	0.2	5.1	5.8	5.4	0.2	5.0	5.7	5.5	0.2	5.1	6.0
Protein (%)	12.3	0.3	11.7	12.9	12.6	0.4	11.9	13.4	12.0	0.4	11.3	12.8
Fat (%)	6.9	0.2	6.6	7.3	7.4	0.2	7.0	7.9	6.5	0.3	6.0	7.0
Dietary fiber (%)	5.0	0.3	4.5	5.5	5.4	0.3	4.8	5.9	4.7	0.4	4.0	5.3
With matching food and similar food²⁾
Nutrients of processed food intakes
Food intake (g)	505.8	8.7	488.5	523.0	632.6	14.5	604.0	661.2	378.8	7.4	364.1	393.5
Total Energy (kcal)	639.4	10.2	619.3	659.5	769.4	13.8	742.2	796.6	509.3	12.0	485.6	533.0
Carbohydrate (g)	83.9	1.5	81.0	86.8	95.2	1.9	91.5	99.0	72.5	1.9	68.8	76.2
Protein (g)	19.7	0.3	19.0	20.4	22.8	0.6	21.7	23.8	16.6	0.4	15.9	17.3
Fat (g)	16.9	0.4	16.1	17.6	18.7	0.4	17.8	19.6	15.0	0.5	14.1	16.0
Dietary fiber (g)	1.1	0.0	1.0	1.1	1.3	0.0	1.2	1.4	0.9	0.0	0.8	1.0
Percentage of processed food intakes (%)
Food intake (%)	30.8	0.4	30.1	31.5	33.3	0.5	32.4	34.2	28.2	0.5	27.3	29.1
Total Energy (%)	29.5	0.3	28.8	30.1	30.9	0.4	30.2	31.6	28.1	0.4	27.2	28.9
Carbohydrate (%)	27.0	0.3	26.4	27.7	26.7	0.4	25.9	27.6	27.3	0.4	26.5	28.1
Protein (%)	36.7	0.4	35.8	37.6	35.9	0.5	34.8	37.0	37.5	0.5	36.5	38.6
Fat (%)	26.5	0.3	25.8	27.1	27.1	0.4	26.3	27.8	25.8	0.4	25.0	26.7
Dietary fiber (%)	16.1	0.3	15.4	16.8	17.0	0.4	16.2	17.9	15.2	0.5	14.3	16.1

¹⁾ Matching food: manufacturer and food name were matched based on analytical data from the 2011 8th RDA Food Composition Table. 2) Similar food: manufacturer and food name were not matched but classified as similar foods.

Table 6.

Comparison of Nutrient Intakes of the Korean population using the KNHANES VI-1 (2013) before and after using a newly constructed processed food DB

Variables	Total (n = 6,805)							Men (n = 2,966)								Women (n = 3,839)
	Before		After		diff¹⁾	t	p²⁾	Before		After		diff¹⁾	t	p	Before		After		diff¹⁾	t	p
	Mean	SE	Mean	SE	diff¹⁾	t	p²⁾	Mean	SE	Mean	SE	diff¹⁾	t	p	Mean	SE	Mean	SE	diff¹⁾	t	p
Age (yrs)	39.1	0.5	39.1	0.5				38.0	0.5	38.0	0.5				40.2	0.6	40.2	0.6
Food intake (g)	505.8	8.7	505.8	8.7				632.6	14.5	632.6	14.5				378.8	7.4	378.8	7.4
Total Energy (kcal)	639.4	10.2	814.2	16.6	+173.9	–21.37	< 0.001	769.4	13.8	985.8	25.5	+215.7	–15.35	< 0.001	509.3	12.0	642.2	16.5	+132.0	–15.04	< 0.001
Carbohydrate (g)	83.9	1.5	113.2	2.5	+29.2	–19.54	< 0.001	95.2	1.9	136.3	4.0	+41.0	–15.53	< 0.001	72.5	1.9	90.1	2.4	+17.5	–11.97	< 0.001
Protein (g)	19.7	0.3	30.1	0.6	+10.4	–20.13	< 0.001	22.8	0.6	38.3	1.1	+15.5	–16.01	< 0.001	16.6	0.4	21.8	0.5	+5.2	–12.98	< 0.001
Fat (g)	16.9	0.4	23.8	0.9	+6.9	–11.84	< 0.001	18.7	0.4	27.2	1.4	+8.5	–8.59	< 0.001	15.0	0.5	20.4	0.9	+5.4	–8.18	< 0.001
Dietary fiber (g)	1.1	0.0	4.5	0.2	+3.4	–25.45	< 0.001	1.3	0.0	5.1	0.2	+3.9	–15.80	< 0.001	0.9	0.0	3.8	0.2	+2.9	–22.44	< 0.001
Ca (mg)	200.4	4.2	189.4	4.4	–11.4	4.85	< 0.001	217.0	5.0	216.2	7.7	–1.0	1.61	0.107	183.8	5.0	162.5	4.1	–21.7	5.45	< 0.001
P (mg)	339.2	6.4	432.0	12.7	+92.3	–7.67	< 0.001	383.4	7.8	571.8	23.4	+188.0	–9.24	< 0.001	295.0	7.0	292.1	8.2	–3.5	0.56	< 0.001
Fe (mg)	3.9	0.1	6.5	0.3	+2.6	–11.14	< 0.001	4.7	0.2	9.0	0.6	+4.3	–9.58	< 0.001	3.1	0.1	4.0	0.2	+0.9	–5.99	0.572
Na (mg)	2,527.6	42.6	3,006.2	52.2	+479.1	–14.75	< 0.001	2,976.0	67.8	3,520.8	92.5	+544.0	–15.59	< 0.001	2,078.8	40.7	2,071.4	111.3	–7.4	–15.11	< 0.001
K (mg)	647.4	9.5	897.0	27.2	+248.7	–11.77	< 0.001	741.9	11.3	1,173.2	49.0	+430.5	–11.0	< 0.001	552.8	13.1	620.3	18.6	+66.5	–4.54	< 0.001
Vitamin A (RE)	188.7	9.9	305.3	19.5	+116.3	–7.49	< 0.001	210.0	15.0	316.1	26.2	+105.9	–4.42	< 0.001	167.3	11.9	294.5	22.0	+126.8	–6.47	< 0.001
Vitamin B₁ (mg)	0.5	0.0	0.9	0.0	+0.4	–13.89	< 0.001	0.6	0.0	1.2	0.1	+0.6	–12.45	< 0.001	0.4	0.0	0.6	0.0	+0.2	–6.46	< 0.001
Vitamin B₂ (mg)	0.5	0.0	0.8	0.0	+0.3	–13.68	< 0.001	0.5	0.0	1.0	0.0	+0.4	–10.62	< 0.001	0.4	0.0	0.6	0.0	+0.2	–8.99	< 0.001
Niacin (mg)	3.7	0.1	5.9	0.2	+2.3	–17.18	< 0.001	4.3	0.1	8.1	0.3	+3.9	–16.38	< 0.001	3.0	0.1	3.7	0.1	+0.6	–6.44	< 0.001
Vitamin C (mg)	9.5	0.3	11.3	0.6	+1.8	–3.65	0.0003	10.4	0.5	13.2	1.0	+2.8	–3.56	0.0004	8.6	0.4	9.4	0.5	+0.8	–1.32	0.185

¹⁾ Differences between before and after using a newly constructed processed food database 2) Paired t-test

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