Young Ran Heo; Hyun Young Oh; Hee Kyong Ro

doi:10.4163/jnh.2017.50.5.472

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Heo, Oh, and Ro: Study of the characteristics of dietary behavior and the effects of nutrition education for sodium reduction according to the stages of behavioral change in sodium reduction of male adult subjects in Gwangju·Jeonnam regions∗

Research Article

J Nutr Health 2017;50(5):472-482.

Published online: 20 January 2017

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4163/jnh.2017.50.5.472

Study of the characteristics of dietary behavior and the effects of nutrition education for sodium reduction according to the stages of behavioral change in sodium reduction of male adult subjects in Gwangju·Jeonnam regions^∗

Young Ran Heo¹, Hyun Young Oh², Hee Kyong Ro^†

¹Division of Food and Nutrition, Human Ecology Research Institute, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, Korea Division of Food and Nutrition, Human Ecology Research Institute, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, Korea

²Graduate School of Dongshin University, Naju 58245, Korea

³Department of Food and Nutrition, Dongshin University, Naju 58245, Korea

^†To whom correspondence should be addressed. tel: +82-061-330-3220, E-mail: hkro@dsu.ac.kr

^∗ This research was supported by the Dongshin University research grants.

Received 22 August 2017 Revised 28 August 2017 Accepted 5 September 2017

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Purpose

This study examined the dietary behavior and the effects of nutrition education according to the stages of behavioral changes in sodium reduction of healthy male adults (20∼69 years) in Gwangju·Chonnam Regions. Methods: The research subjects were 200 male adults. Results: A significantly higher mean age was observed in the stage of Action·Maintenance (A·M) than in the stage of Precontemplation (PC) and stage of Contemplation·Preparation (C·P). Significant differences in the frequency of exercise, eating out, and preference for salty food, intake frequency of Udon, Ramen and Sundae according to the stages of behavior change in sodium reduction were observed. The dietary behavior scores and intake frequency-related dietary behavior scores of A·M were significantly higher than PC and C·P. Nutrition education for sodium reduction improved the dietary behavior score significantly in PC and C·P, as well as the rate of correct answers of sodium-related nutrition knowledge in all stages. After the nutrition education, PC decreased greatly, and A·M increased. Conclusion: Subjects in PC and C·P had an undesirable propensity in dietary behavior, and nutrition knowledge compared to A·M, but the nutrition education for sodium reduction greatly improved their dietary behavior and nutrition knowledge.

Keywords: sodium, stages of behavior change, nutrition education, dietary behavior, nutrition knowledge

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Table 1.

General characteristics according to the stages of sodium reduction behavior N (%

Characteristics	PC¹⁾	C·P	A·M	Total	χ²
Age (yrs)
20 ∼ 29	28 (28.6)	8 (18.2)	4 (6.9)	40 (20.0)
30 ∼ 39	22 (22.4)	13 (29.5)	5 (8.6)	40 (20.0)
40 ∼ 49	25 (25.5)	8 (18.2)	7 (12.1)	40 (20.0)	55.945^∗∗∗
50 ∼ 59	17 (17.3)	10 (22.7)	13 (22.4)	40 (20.0)
60 ∼ 69	6 (6.1)	5 (11.4)	29 (50.0)	40 (20.0)
Mean age²⁾	39.1 ± 12.7^a	42.0 ± 13.2^a	54.7 ± 13.3^b	44.3 ± 14.5
Frequency of exercise (times/week)
< 1	39 (39.8)	17 (38.6)	10 (17.2)	66 (33.0)
1 ∼ 2	40 (40.8)	20 (45.5)	17 (29.3)	77 (38.5)
3 ∼ 4	15 (15.3)	4 (9.1)	18 (31.0)	37 (18.5)	31.135^∗∗∗
5 ∼ 6	3 (3.1)	0 (0.0)	7 (12.1)	10 (5.0)
everyday	1 (1.0)	3 (6.8)	6 (10.3)	10 (5.0)
Eating out frequency (times)
None	20 (20.4)	13 (29.5)	26 (44.8)	59 (29.5)
1 ∼ 2 (week)	49 (50.0)	23 (52.3)	26 (44.8)	98 (49.0)
3 ∼ 4 (week)	19 (19.4)	3 (6.8)	1 (1.7)	23 (11.5)	24.006^∗∗
5 ∼ 6 (week)	5 (5.1)	1 (2.3)	3 (5.2)	9 (4.5)	24.006^∗∗
1 (day)	3 (3.1)	4 (9.1)	2 (3.4)	9 (4.5)
≥ 2 (day)	2 (2.0)	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)	2 (1.0)
Hypertension diagnosis
Yes	13 (13.3)	7 (15.9)	14 (24.1)	34 (17.0)	3.100
No	85 (86.7)	37 (84.1)	44 (75.9)	166 (83.0)	3.100
Hypertension drug
Yes	8 (8.2)	5 (11.4)	11 (19.0)	24 (12.0)	4.048
No	90 (91.8)	39 (88.6)	47 (81.0)	176 (88.0)	4.048
Nutrition education
None	84 (85.7)	37 (84.1)	44 (75.9)	165 (82.5)
One time	9 (9.2)	3 (6.8)	10 (17.2)	22 (11.0)	16.028
> One time	5 (5.1)	4 (9.1)	4 (6.9)	13 (6.5)
Total	98 (100.0)	44 (100.0)	58 (100.0)	200 (100.0)

¹⁾ PC: Precontemplation, C·P: Contemplation·Preparation, A·M: Action·Maintenance 2) Each value is mean ± SD. Means with different superscript in row are significantly different by ANOVA with Duncan's multiple range test (p < 0.05).

^∗∗ p < 0.01,

^∗∗∗ p < 0.001

Table 2.

Anthropometric characteristics according to the stages of sodium reduction behavior

Characteristics	PC⁴⁾ (N = 98)	C·P (N = 44)	A·M (N = 58)	Total (N = 200)
Height (cm)	173.8 ± 6.1^a	172.4 ± 4.8^ab	170.8 ± 5.0^b	172.6 ± 5.7
Weight (kg)	75.1 ± 13.0	73.6 ± 9.0	71.3 ± 8.0	73.7 ± 11.0
BMI¹⁾	24.8 ± 3.9	24.8 ± 2.7	24.4 ± 2.7	24.7 ± 3.3
Waist circumference (cm)	87.2 ± 9.3	86.4 ± 7.3	86.0 ± 7.1	86.6 ± 8.3
SBP²⁾ (mmHg)	126.6 ± 11.7	125.4 ± 10.2	129.0 ± 15.5	127.0 ± 12.6
DBP³⁾ (mmHg)	82.2 ± 9.1	82.3 ± 8.9	80.9 ± 11.0	81.8 ± 9.6

Each value is mean ± standard deviation. 1) Body mass index = kg (body weight) / m

² (height) 2) Systolic blood pressure 3) Diastolic blood pressure 4) PC: Precontemplation, C·P: Contemplation·Preparation, A·M: Action·Maintenance Means with different superscript in row are significantly different by ANOVA with Duncan's multiple range test (p < 0.05).

Table 3.

Preference of salty food according to the stages of sodium reduction behavior N (%)

Characteristics	PC¹⁾	C·P	A·M	Total	χ²
Dislike much	5 (5.1)	1 (2.3)	1 (1.7)	7 (3.5)
Dislike	13 (13.3)	8 (18.2)	25 (43.1)	46 (23.0)
Moderate	48 (49.0)	31 (70.5)	24 (41.4)	103 (51.5)	31.589^∗∗∗
Like	29 (29.6)	4 (9.1)	8 (13.8)	41 (20.5)
Like much	3 (3.1)	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)	3 (1.5)
Total	98 (100.0)	44 (100.0)	58 (100.0)	200 (100.0)

¹⁾ PC: Precontemplation, C·P: Contemplation·Preparation, A·M: Action·Maintenance

^∗∗∗ p < 0.001

Table 4.

Intake frequency of high sodium food according to the stages of sodium reduction behavior N (%)

Characteristics	PC¹⁾	C·P	A·M	Total	χ²
Porridges
None	55 (56.1)	22 (50.0)	27 (46.6)	104 (52.0)
1 times/month	34 (34.7)	14 (31.8)	23 (39.7)	71 (35.5)
2 times/month	5 (5.1)	4 (9.1)	3 (5.2)	12 (6.0)	8.910
3 times/month	1 (1.0)	0 (0.0)	2 (3.4)	3 (1.5)	8.910
1 ∼ 2 times/week	3 (3.1)	3 (6.8)	3 (5.2)	9 (4.5)
3 ∼ 4 times/week	0 (0.0)	1 (2.3)	0 (0.0)	1 (0.5)
Udong / Jambong
None	17 (17.3)	3 (6.8)	16 (27.6)	36 (18.0)
1 times/month	25 (25.5)	15 (34.1)	21 (36.2)	61 (30.5)
2 times/month	21 (21.4)	10 (22.7)	11 (19.0)	42 (21.0)	18.484^∗
3 times/month	17 (17.3)	11 (25.0)	3 (5.2)	31 (15.5)	18.484^∗
1 ∼ 2 times/week	14 (14.3)	3 (6.8)	7 (12.1)	24 (12.0)
3 ∼ 4 times/week	4 (4.1)	2 (4.5)	0 (0.0)	6 (3.0)
Salted Seafood
None	23 (23.5)	20 (45.5)	18 (31.0)	61 (30.5)
1 times/month	27 (27.6)	10 (22.7)	18 (31.0)	55 (27.5)
2 times/month	18 (18.4)	3 (6.8)	10 (17.2)	31 (15.5)
3 times/month	9 (9.2)	5 (11.4)	2 (3.4)	16 (8.0)	16.450
1 ∼ 2 times/week	15 (15.3)	5 (11.4)	9 (15.5)	29 (14.5)
3 ∼ 4 times/week	1 (1.0)	1 (2.3)	1 (1.7)	3 (1.5)
≥ 5 times/week	5 (5.1)	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)	5 (2.5)
Sundae
None	25 (25.5)	17 (38.6)	32 (55.2)	74 (37.0)
1 times/month	51 (52.0)	15 (34.1)	19 (32.8)	85 (42.5)
2 times/month	13 (13.3)	8 (18.2)	4 (6.9)	25 (12.5)	26.419^∗∗
3 times/month	8 (8.2)	2 (4.5)	0 (0.0)	10 (5.0)	26.419^∗∗
1 ∼ 2 times/week	1 (1.0)	1 (2.3)	3 (5.2)	5 (2.5)
3 ∼ 4 times/week	0 (0.0)	1 (2.3)	0 (0.0)	1 (0.5)
Ramen
None	6 (6.1)	1 (2.3)	17 (29.3)	24 (12.0)
1 times/month	6 (6.1)	5 (11.4)	12 (20.7)	23 (11.5)
2 times/month	7 (7.1)	5 (11.4)	12 (20.7)	24 (12.0)
3 times/month	25 (25.5)	13 (29.5)	7 (12.1)	45 (22.5)	51.083^∗∗∗
1 ∼ 2 times/week	40 (40.8)	16 (36.4)	9 (15.5)	65 (32.5)
3 ∼ 4 times/week	9 (9.2)	3 (6.8)	1 (1.7)	13 (6.5)
≥ 5 times/week	5 (5.1)	1 (2.3)	0 (0.0)	6 (3.0)
Total	98 (100.0)	44 (100.0)	58 (100.0)	200 (100.0)

¹⁾ PC: Precontemplation, C·P: Contemplation·Preparation, A·M: Action·Maintenance

^∗ p < 0.05,

^∗∗ p < 0.01,

^∗∗∗ p < 0.001

Table 5.

Dietary behavior scores and effects of nutrition education for reducing sodium intake according to the stage of change for reducing sodium intake

Characteristics	Pre¹⁾			Post
Characteristics	PC²⁾ (N = 98)	C·P (N = 44)	A·M (N = 58)	PC (N = 98)	C·P (N = 44)	A·M (N = 58)
I eat all of soup broth or noodle liquid.	2.7 ± 1.1	2.9 ± 1.0	2.8 ± 1.2	3.0 ± 1.2	3.0 ± 1.0	2.9 ± 1.0
When I eat food, I add salt or soy sauce or ketchup.	3.5 ± 1.0^a3)	3.6 ± 1.0^a	4.0 ± 1.0^b	3.7 ± 1.0	3.5 ± 1.0	3.8 ± 1.1
I eat deep-fried, pan-fried foods or sliced raw fish dipping into much soy sauce.	3.2 ± 1.0^a	3.2 ± 0.9^a	3.6 ± 0.9^b	3.4 ± 1.0	3.5 ± 0.9	3.4 ± 1.0
When I buy processed food, I check the sodium content.	1.5 ± 0.6^a	2.1 ± 0.8^b	2.0 ± 0.9^b	1.8 ± 0.9^∗4)	2.4 ± 1.0	2.1 ± 1.0
I use low salt products (low salt soy sauce, low salt soybean paste).	1.9 ± 0.8^a	2.2 ± 0.8^b	2.7 ± 1.0^c	2.0 ± 0.9	2.4 ± 0.8	2.4 ± 0.9
When I eat out, I require insufficiently salted.	1.6 ± 0.7^a	1.8 ± 0.6^a	2.3 ± 1.0^b	1.8 ± 0.8^∗	2.3 ± 0.8^∗∗	2.2 ± 0.9
Total	2.4 ± 0.5^a	2.6 ± 0.5^b	2.9 ± 0.4^c	2.6 ± 0.6^∗∗	2.9 ± 0.5^∗	2.8 ± 0.6

Each value is mean ± SD. Values assessed by 5 point Likert scale (1: the most negative behavior, 5: the most positive behavior). 1) Pre: Pre education of reducing sodium intake, Post: Post education of reducing sodium intake 2) PC: Precontemplation, C·P: Contemplation·Preparation, A·M: Action ·Maintenance 3) Means with different superscript in row are significantly different by ANOVA with Duncan's multiple range test among pre-education (p < 0.05). 4) Significantly different by t-test (

^∗ p < 0.05,

^∗∗ p < 0.01) between pre and post education by stage of change for reducing sodium intake.

Table 6.

Food intake frequency related dietary behavior characteristics and effects of nutrition education for reducing sodium intake according to the stage of change for reducing sodium intake

Characteristics	Pre¹⁾			Post
Characteristics	PC² (N = 98)	C·P (N = 44)	A·M (N = 58)	PC¹⁾ (N = 98)	C·P (N = 44)	A·M (N = 58)
How often do you eat the rice-based Korean meal?	6.1 ± 1.0	6.0 ± 1.2	6.0 ± 1.6	5.9 ± 1.2	6.0 ± 1.1	6.2 ± 1.2
How often do you eat the stew and soup?	2.6 ± 1.2	2.4 ± 1.1	2.7 ± 1.7	2.6 ± 1.3	2.7 ± 1.3	2.6 ± 1.4
How often do you eat the kimchi?	1.8 ± 1.0	1.8 ± 1.1	2.0 ± 1.2	1.9 ± 1.1	1.9 ± 1.0	1.9 ± 1.0
How often do you eat vegetables dish?	5.0 ± 1.4	5.3 ± 1.3	5.3 ± 1.7	5.2 ± 1.4	4.8 ± 1.5	5.6 ± 1.3
How often do you eat the salted fish?	5.4 ± 1.1	5.4 ± 1.1	5.1 ± 1.3	5.4 ± 1.2	5.5 ± 1.1	5.1 ± 1.1
How often do you eat the stir-fried or hard-boiled food?	4.7 ± 1.3^ab3)	4.3 ± 1.1^a	5.0 ± 1.5^b	4.8 ± 1.2	4.8 ± 1.3	5.0 ± 1.3
How often do you eat the processed food (boiled fish paste, canned, ham)?	5.0 ± 1.2^a	5.1 ± 1.2^a	5.8 ± 1.3^b	5.3 ± 1.2	5.5 ± 1.4	5.3 ± 1.5
How often do you eat potato, soybean, tofu's made food?	3.3 ± 1.3	3.7 ± 1.2	3.7 ± 1.5	3.3 ± 1.4	3.5 ± 1.2	3.6 ± 1.3
How often do you eat the salted snacks (potato chips, cracker)?	2.3 ± 1.3	2.2 ± 1.1	2.0 ± 1.4	2.3 ± 1.3	2.0 ± 1.2	2.0 ± 1.3
How often do you eat nuts (peanut etc)?	2.4 ± 1.2	2.3 ± 1.3	2.8 ± 1.6	2.5 ± 1.4	2.7 ± 1.4	2.7 ± 1.5
How often do you eat fruit?	3.3 ± 1.3^a	3.6 ± 1.1^a	4.5 ± 1.5^b	3.5 ± 1.4	4.0 ± 1.4	4.5 ± 1.6
Total	3.8 ± 0.4^a	3.8 ± 0.3^a	4.1 ± 0.4^b	3.9 ± 0.4	4.0 ± 0.4	4.0 ± 0.4

Each value is mean ± standard deviation. Values assessed by 7 point Likert scale (1: the most negative behavior, 7: the most positive behavior). 1) Pre: Pre education of reducing sodium intake, Post: Post education of reducing sodium intake 2) PC: Precontemplation, C·P: Contemplation·Preparation, A·M: Action ·Maintenance 3) Means with different superscript in row are significantly different by ANOVA with Duncan's multiple range test (p < 0.05).

Table 7.

Nutrition knowledge scores and effects of nutrition education for reducing sodium intake according to the stage of change for reducing sodium intake

Characteristics	Pre¹⁾			Post
Characteristics	PC² (N = 98)	C·P (N = 44)	A·M (N = 58)	PC¹⁾ (N = 98)	C·P (N = 44)	A·M (N = 58)
What is nutrient long time excess intake can cause with a hypertension, stroke, stomach cancer, osteoporosis?	0.93 ± 0.26	0.95 ± 0.21	0.88 ± 0.33	0.98 ± 0.14	1.00 ± 0.00	1.00 ± 0.00^∗∗4)
What is the recommended amount of salt intake by WHO?	0.49 ± 0.50	0.52 ± 0.51	0.57 ± 0.50	0.79 ± 0.41^∗∗∗	0.93 ± 0.25^∗∗∗	0.93 ± 0.25^∗∗∗
What is the Korean People's average sodium intake amount?	0.19 ± 0.40	0.23 ± 0.42	0.19 ± 0.40	0.61 ± 0.49^∗∗∗	0.68 ± 0.47^∗∗∗	0.67 ± 0.47^∗∗∗
When buy canned food, nutritional expression's sodium 2,000 mg change how much salt amount?	0.18 ± 0.39	0.23 ± 0.42	0.24 ± 0.43	0.65 ± 0.47^∗∗∗	0.73 ± 0.45^∗∗∗	0.69 ± 0.46^∗∗∗
Which is seasoning 1 spoon's salt the most amount?	0.66 ± 0.48	0.73 ± 0.45	0.72 ± 0.45	0.79 ± 0.41	0.84 ± 0.37	0.83 ± 0.38
Which food is the highest in sodium content?	0.96 ± 0.20^ab3)	1.00 ± 0.00^b	0.90 ± 0.31^a	0.98 ± 0.14	1.00 ± 0.00	1.00 ± 0.00^∗
Which is correct method for reducing sodium intake?	0.63 ± 0.49	0.55 ± 0.50	0.60 ± 0.49	0.70 ± 0.45	0.70 ± 0.46	0.74 ± 0.44
Which is incorrect method for reducing sodium intake?	0.90 ± 0.30^ab	0.91 ± 0.29^b	0.78 ± 0.42^a	0.90 ± 0.30	0.98 ± 0.15	0.78 ± 0.42
There is no sodium in bread, candy, bland processed food.	0.98 ± 0.14^b	0.95 ± 0.21^b	0.86 ± 0.35^a	0.98 ± 0.14	0.98 ± 0.15	0.93 ± 0.25
Potassium of fresh vegetables and fruits is excretion sodium in body.	0.96 ± 0.20^b	0.91 ± 0.29^ab	0.81 ± 0.40^a	0.97 ± 0.17	0.93 ± 0.25	0.83 ± 0.38
Total	6.89 ± 1.45³⁾	6.98 ± 1.19	6.55 ± 1.84 8	8.35 ± 1.1.16^∗∗∗	8.77 ± 1.31^∗∗∗	8.40 ± 1.35^∗∗∗

Each value is mean ± standard deviation. 1) Pre: Pre education of reducing sodium intake, Post: Post education of reducing sodium intake 2) PC: Precontemplation, C·P: Contemplation·Preparation, A·M: Action ·Maintenance 3) Means with different superscript in row are significantly different among pre-education by ANOVA with Duncan's multiple range test (p < 0.05) 4) Significantly different by t-test (

^∗ p < 0.05,

^∗∗ p < 0.01,

^∗∗∗ p < 0.001) between pre and post education by stage of change for reducing sodium intake.

Table 8.

Changes in the distribution of behavior stages after the nutrition education according to the stages of sodium reduction behavior N (%)

PC¹⁾		C·P		A·M
Pre²⁾	Post	Pre	Post	Pre	Post
98 (49.0)^∗∗∗3)	⁾ 34 (17.0)	44 (22.0)^∗∗∗	^∗ 55 (28.0)	58 (29.0)^∗∗∗	^∗ 111 (55.0)

¹⁾ PC: Precontemplation, C·P: Contemplation·Preparation, A·M: Action·Maintenance 2) Pre: Pre education of reducing sodium intake, Post: Post education of reducing sodium intake 3)

^∗∗∗ Significantly different by χ

² (p < 0.001) between pre and post education by stage of change for reducing sodium intake.

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