The induction of the ‘Study Korea Project’ has seen a dramatic increase in the number of international students in Korea.12 Relocation, such as from a rural to an urban setting and vice versa, can cause significant changes to an individual's lifestyle patterns, particularly, dietary and food habits.3 Several studies have been conducted on dietary practices and acculturation of migrants and international students.45678 For international students, the process of adaptation to new cultures and the influence of external factors on their dietary behavior cannot be trivialized. Negative changes in dietary behaviors, for instance decreased consumption of fruits and vegetables, increased consumption of alcohol, sweets, lipids, and high energy intake, have been reported. Also, irregular eating habits, such as skipping meals, particularly breakfast, and increased snacking at irregular times, have been widely mentioned.45678 A study conducted among Chinese students studying in South Korea revealed that regular breakfast consumption by the students decreased from 43.0 to 23.2% after migration from China to the Republic of Korea. In addition, the subjects who had three square meals a day also decreased from 80.3% in China to 49.3% in South Korea. Furthermore, their vegetable consumption also declined, from 44.4% in China to 24.6% in South Korea.8 In Nigeria, students who were staying in boarding houses were found to be deficient in protein (15%) and vitamin C (25~80%) among various age groups.9

There are several potential challenges to overcome when relocating to a foreign country, such as acculturative stress (i.e., stress emanating from life changes in the process of assimilating new cultures). International students, unlike other immigrants, encounter a unique situation because they may be exposed to relatively novel experiences and often have to confront the reality of being physically apart from their parents, as well as other relatives, for the first time.101112 Therefore, it is imperative that a detailed and accurate assessment of their dietary habits and daily nutrient and food intakes are determined so that the appropriate nutritional recommendations and education can be provided.

The National Statistical Office recently stated that there has been an increase in the number of Ghanaian students living in Korea.13 However, lack of detailed information about the lifestyle characteristics of the Ghanaian students in Korea may result in educational initiatives or interventions by nutrition educators, that may be culturally inappropriate and may be detrimental to their health.

Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the current dietary intake of Ghanaian students living in South Korea and to compare their meal skipping habits before and after migrating to South Korea.

The purpose of this study was to examine the meal skipping habits and assess the nutritional status of Ghanaian students currently staying in Korea. In our study, the daily food intake was 1,202.04 ± 361.2 g, of which, plant-based food constituted 74.5% and animal-based food constituted 25.5%. Cereal and cereal products were the most consumed plant food, whereas milk and milk products were the most consumed animal food. A study of mothers of childbearing age in the Eastern Region of Ghana showed that 95.3% of the respondents consumed fish daily, while 37.8 and 53% consumed meat and milk, respectively, on a weekly basis.16 Similarly, another study, comparing the food intake of Ghanaians staying in Ghana with Ghanaians in the UK, showed that among the native Ghanaians, fish (23%) and soup and stews (23%), were the major protein sources.17 This indicates that there is possibly a shift in the source of protein consumed by Ghanaian students, after coming to Korea. A change in dietary pattern was similarly observed by Pan et al., which found an increase in consumption of dairy products among Asian immigrants after moving to the USA.18

The Ghanaian MOH dietary guidelines recommends the daily energy intake from macronutrients is 30~50% from carbohydrates, 10~15% from fat, 5~10% from animal-based protein and 20~30% from plant-based protein. In the study by Gibson et al., where the native Ghanaians were compared with the UK-based Ghanaians, the daily energy intake among native Ghanaians was 61.5% from carbohydrate, 24.4% from fat and 14.1% from protein.17 In our study, 65, 22 and 12% came from carbohydrate, fat and protein, respectively. This indicates that there is an increased intake of energy from carbohydrate and fat and less from protein compared to the recommended intakes. The participants mentioned having meals either in the cafeteria or from Korean restaurants. This may have influenced the similarities between their diet patterns and the Korean diet. Our study participants were men, which maybe another factor that influenced eating-out patterns. Additionally, similar to Korean diet patterns, the main dish in the study participants' diet consisted of rice or bread with meat or tuna. Having rice or bread may have contributed to 65% of their energy intake being from carbohydrates, which is also similar to the Korean diet pattern. The Ghanaian MOH recommends 3,091 kcal/day for males. In our study, the mean daily energy intake was 2,289.6 ± 548.9 kcal, and 92.3% of the male students did not meet the RNI advocated by the FAO/WHO. The RNI values for various micronutrients, such as calcium, iron, zinc, vitamin A, vitamin B2, were also not met among our study participants. From literature, it has been established that skipping meals, particularly breakfast, does not result in an accurate energy compensation at subsequent meals and, consequently, daily energy intakes may decline.19

Meal skipping is the most common dietary practice reported among students including international students.2021 In our study, breakfast skipping habits increased to an average of 3 times per week, after coming to Korea, which is consistent with findings from the works of, 22 in which the majority of students stated they tended to skip breakfast due to tight lecture schedules. Participants in this study also cited time constraints as the main reason for skipping meals. This may be due to the acculturative process, which may require a period of adaptation to the new environment and an adjustment in time management.23

A comparison between meal skipping frequency and diet quality indicators, NAR and MAR, showed that several nutrients, such as vitamins B1 and vitamin B2, was significantly lower among subjects who skipped meals ≥ 7 times/week than those who skipped meals < 7 times/week. This implies the possibility of a low-quality diet among Ghanaian students who skipped meals ≥ 7 times/week. The link between dietary practices and the amount and quality of nutrients consumed is well-established. Gaowei et al. also found that college students who maintained good dietary practices before and after coming to Korea had a higher intake of food and nutrients than those who did not.24

The current study has limitations. The subjects had only resided in Korea for a short period of time. Therefore, an assessment of their, relatively, long-term changes in dietary behaviors was not done. Also, the intra-person variation in food and nutrient consumption, as obtained by a single 24-h recall, may not be sufficient to assess the nutritional status of Ghanaian students. Body weights and heights were provided by the subjects and, therefore, may have been a source of bias on the part of some of the participants. Furthermore, the sample size was relatively small. In spite of the above limitations, this study is the first to have attempted to investigate the dietary patterns among Ghanaian international students and, to a large extent, students of African origin. Thus, the study is pivotal in providing baseline data for future nutrition researchers, who are interested in probing nutritional and dietary habits of international students, particularly those from West Africa.

In conclusion, we found that daily nutrient intakes were insufficient and did not meet the standards established by Ghana's MOH nutrient recommendations. Meal skipping practices were shown to differ significantly after coming to Korea. It was revealed that participants who skipped meals ≥ 7 times/week had a lower diet quality than those who skipped meals < 7 times/week. On the basis of our study findings, we recommend that nutrition education should be organized for the Ghanaian student community in Korea, using our study results as a template to draft a nutritional and culturally appropriate program.

The purpose of this study was to examine the dietary behavior and assess the nutritional status of Ghanaian students currently staying in Korea. This study is the first to have attempted to study the dietary patterns among Ghanaian international students. For the study, a total of 81 Ghanaian male students with an average age of 29.4 ± 4.0 years were sampled between May and June 2016. The study results showed that the daily intake for nutrients such as vitamins A and C, iron, folate and energy requirements did not meet the daily RNI established by Ghana's MOH. Meal skipping behavior significantly increased among participants after coming to Korea. The study results also showed that the diet quality indicators, NAR and MAR, were lower among participants who skipped meals ≥ 7 times/week compared to those who skipped meals > 7 times/week. These study findings imply a need for nutritional education, tailored based on the cultural practices, among Ghanaian students in Korea.