Journal List > J Nutr Health > v.50(4) > 1081511

Kim, Shin, Kim, Seo, Ma, and Yang: Association of iron status and food intake with blood heavy metal concentrations in Korean adolescent girls and women: Based on the 2010∼2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey∗

Abstract

Purpose

This study examined and compared the associations of the iron status and food intake with the blood lead, mercury, and cadmium concentrations among Korean adolescent girls, premenopausal women, and postmenopausal women. Methods: The data from the 2010∼2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) was used. The subjects were classified into three groups: adolescent girls (n = 268), premenopausal women (n = 1,157), and postmenopausal women (n = 446). The iron status was assessed by hemoglobin, hematocrit, serum ferritin, and iron concentrations, as well as the total iron binding capacity (TIBC). The food intake was estimated by a food frequency questionnaire. Results: The blood heavy metal concentrations and poisoning rate in postmenopausal women were higher than in the other groups. The iron status in the adolescent girls and postmenopausal women was higher than that in the premenopausal women. In the adolescent girls, the iron status was inversely associated with the blood cadmium concentration. The dairy food intake was inversely related to the blood lead and cadmium concentrations. In premenopausal women, the iron status was inversely associated with the cadmium concentrations. The fish and shellfish food intakes were positively associated with the mercury concentrations. In postmenopausal women, the iron status was positively associated with the mercury and cadmium concentrations. Fast foods and fried foods were inversely associated with the lead concentration. Conclusion: The premenopausal women showed a lower iron status than the adolescent girls and postmenopausal women. The associations of the iron status with the blood heavy metal concentrations were different among the adolescent girls, premenopausal women, and postmenopausal women. In addition, the relationships of the food intakes with the blood heavy metal concentrations differed among adolescent girls, premenopausal women, and postmenopausal women. Further studies will be needed to confirm these findings.

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Table 1.
General characteristics of the subjects
Characteristic Adolescent girls (n = 268) Premenopausal women (n = 1,157) Postmenopausal women (n = 446) p1)
Age (year) 15.3 ± 0.12)a 34.1 ± 0.3b 56.3 ± 0.2c < 0.0001
Anthropometric measurement        
Height (cm) 159.9 ± 0.4b 159.6 ± 0.2b 155.0 ± 0.3a < 0.0001
Weight (kg) 54.33 ± 0.7a 57.2 ± 0.3b 58.2 ± 0.4c < 0.0001
BMI (kg/m2) 21.2 ± 0.3a 22.5 ± 0.1b 24.3 ± 0.2c < 0.0001
Education status       < 0.0001
Below elementary 134 (43.3)3) 42 (4.2) 203 (44.6)  
Middle school 118 (50.4) 61 (5.2) 92 (23.6)  
High school 15 (5.9) 495 (45.1) 121 (24.9)  
College or higher 1 (0.3) 556 (45.5) 28 (6.8)  
Residence area       0.0002
Urban 229 (82.8) 995 (85.2) 341 (76.3)  
Rural 39 (17.2) 162 (14.8) 105 (23.7)  
Alcohol intake       NA4)
None 210 (74.7) 288 (20.0) 195 (41.5)  
≤ 4times/month 55 (23.8) 784 (68.1) 225 (51.3)  
2∼3times/week 2 (1.4) 114 (9.5) 16 (4.3)  
≥ 4times/week 0 (0.0) 25 (2.4) 9 (2.9)  
Smoking status       NA
Current Smoker 0 (0.0) 85 (8.3) 15 (4.0)  
Exercise       0.002
None 156 (59.6) 732 (64.1) 318 (70.9)  
1∼2day/week 69 (25.8) 197 (17.5) 46 (11.5)  
3∼4day/week 25 (7.9) 122 (9.9) 36 (6.8)  
5∼7day/week 18 (6.8) 106 (8.6) 46 (10.8)  
Nutrients        
Total energy intake (kcal/day) 1,916.9 ± 60.0b 1,774.7 ± 26.8a 1,731.0 ± 40.6a 0.033
Carbohydrate (g) 290.1 ± 8.4a 280.1 ± 4.1a 314.3 ± 7.7b 0.003
Protein (g) 68.7 ± 2.6b 66.4 ± 1.3b 59.4 ± 1.8a < 0.0001
Fat (g) 52.9 ± 2.9c 42.3 ± 1.1b 28.8 ± 1.4a 0.0005
Dietary fiber (g) 5.0 ± 0.3a 6.4 ± 0.2b 8.0 ± 0.4c < 0.0001
Calcium (mg) 460.5 ± 24.0 462.4 ± 10.5 472.9 ± 18.8 0.877
Phosphorous (mg) 1,046.3 ± 34.0 1,054.3 ± 17.1 1,062.2 ± 28.1 0.940
Iron (mg) 11.3 ± 0.6a 13.1 ± 0.5b 15.0 ± 0.7c 0.0003
Sodium (mg) 3,664.2 ± 176.6 a 4,398.9 ± 100.6b 4,237.5 ± 177.1b 0.0002
Potassium (mg) 2,358.8 ± 90.8a 2,718.2 ± 52.0b 2,998.7 ± 100.0c < 0.0001
Supplement use       < 0.0001
Yes 53 (18.6) 402 (37.0) 219 (53.2)  

Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index 1) P-value was analyzed by ANOVA test for continuous variables and chi-square test for categorical variables. 2) Mean ± SE (Mean values with unlike superscript letters within a row were significantly different among the three groups by Tukey's test.) 3) N (%) 4) None applicable

Table 2.
Pearson's correlation coefficients among blood heavy metal concentrations, age and body mass index
  Adolescent girls (n = 268) Premenopausal women (n = 1,157) Postmenopausal women (n = 446)
Age (year)      
Lead (μg/dL) 0.0592 (0.3346)1) 0.3307 (< 0.0001) –0.0779 (0.1004)
Mercury (μg/L) –0.0538 (0.3800) 0.2401 (< 0.0001) –0.0739 (0.1190)
Cadmium (μg/L) 0.1381 (0.0237) 0.5608 (< 0.0001) 0.0194 (0.6826)
BMI (kg/m2)      
Lead (μg/dL) –0.0573 (0.3499) 0.1096 (0.0002) –0.0002 (0.9964)
Mercury (μg/L) 0.1510 (0.0133) 0.1506 (< 0.0001) 0.2049 (< 0.0001)
Cadmium (μg/L) –0.0022 (0.9716) 0.1538 (< 0.0001) 0.0885 (0.0617)

1) Pearson's correlation coefficient (p-value)

Table 3.
Blood heavy metal concentrations and poisoning rate of lead, mercury and cadmium
  Adolescent girls Premenopausal Postmenopausal p1)
  (n = 268) women (n = 1,157) women (n = 446)
  Geo mean (95% CI)2) Geo mean (95% CI) Geo mean (95% CI)
Blood heavy metal        
Lead (μg/dL) 1.08 (1.04–1.13)3)a 1.65 (1.62–1.69)b 2.26 (2.19–2.33)c < 0.0001
Mercury (μg/L) 1.95 (1.85–2.06))a 2.97 (2.89–3.06)b 3.45 (3.27–3.64)c < 0.0001
Cadmium (μg/L) 0.35 (0.33–0.38)a 0.92 (0.89–0.96)b 1.41 (1.35–1.47)c < 0.0001
  N (%) N (%) N (%)  
Blood heavy metal poisoning rate4)        
Lead (μg/dL) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) NA5)
Mercury (μg/L) 10 (3.9) 167 (14.8) 111 (24.6) < 0.0001
Cadmium (μg/L) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 1 (0.008) NA

1) Blood heavy metal was analyzed by geometric mean (95% confidence interval). 2) P-value was analyzed by ANOVA test for continuous variables. 3) Mean values with unlike superscript letters within a row were significantly different among the three groups by Tukey's test. 4) Lead: Blood heavy metal poisoning (> 10 μg/dL), Mercury: Blood heavy metal poisoning (> 5 μg/L), Cadmium: Blood heavy metal poisoning (> 5 μg/L) 5) None applicable

Table 4.
Iron status and deficiency rate based on hemoglobin, hematocrit, ferritin, iron, and total iron binding capacity
  Adolescent girls Premenopausal Postmenopausal p1)
  (n = 268) women (n = 1,157) women (n = 446)
  Mean ± SE Mean ± SE Mean ± SE
Iron status        
Hb (g/dL) 13.2 ± 0.072)b 12.9 ± 0.04a 13.3 ± 0.1b < 0.0001
Hct (%) 39.7 ± 0.2b 38.8 ± 0.1a 39.9 ± 0.2b < 0.0001
Frtn (ng/mL) 28.8 ± 1.6a 30.7 ± 0.9a 67.4 ± 3.3b < 0.0001
Fe (μg/dL) 98.8 ± 2.9 98.9 ± 1.6 104.5 ± 2.0 0.055
TIBC (μg/dL) 344.3 ± 3.6c 333.2 ± 1.8b 314.2 ± 2.3a < 0.0001
  N (%) N (%) N (%)  
Iron deficiency rate3)        
Hb (g/dL) 22 (8.1) 185 (15.5) 319 (6.3) < 0.0001
Hct (%) 17 (7.0) 166 (13.5) 29 (6.5) 0.001
Frtn (ng/mL) 80 (31.7) 370 (32.7) 26 (5.4) < 0.0001
Fe (μg/dL) 18 (8.3) 114 (9.8) 9 (1.4) < 0.0001
TIBC (μg/dL) 25 (9.0) 79 (7.9) 6 (0.7) < 0.0001

Abbreviations: HB, hemoglobin; HCT, hematocrit; Frtn, ferritin; Fe, iron; TIBC, total iron-binding capacity

1) P-value was analyzed by ANOVA test for continuous variables.

2) Mean ± SE (Mean values with unlike superscript letters within a row were significantly different among the three groups by Tukey's test.)

3) Hemoglobin: Iron deficiency (< 12 g/dL), Hematocrit: Iron deficiency (< 36%), Ferritin: Iron deficiency (< 15 ng/mL), Iron: Iron deficiency (< 40 μg/dL) and Total iron-binding capacity: Iron deficiency (> 410 μg/dL)

Table 5.
Associations between blood heavy metal concentrations and iron status of the subjects
  Adolescent girls (n = 268) Premenopausal women (n = 1,157) Postmenopausal women (n = 446)
  β1) p2) β p β p
Lead (μg/dL)            
Hb (g/dL) 0.035 0.138 0.043 0.0003 0.033 0.162
Hct (%) 0.011 0.173 0.020 < 0.0001 0.014 0.072
Frtn (ng/mL) –0.0002 0.806 –0.0006 0.240 –0.00005 0.863
Fe (μg/dL) 0.0006 0.435 –0.00003 0.924 –0.001 0.031
TIBC (μg/dL) 0.0002 0.724 0.0005 0.073 –0.0004 0.349
Mercury (μg/L)            
Hb (g/dL) 0.051 0.087 0.072 < 0.0001 0.064 0.049
Hct (%) 0.015 0.191 0.028 < 0.0001 0.024 0.048
Frtn (ng/mL) 0.002 0.087 0.003 0.0002 0.0004 0.612
Fe (μg/dL) –0.0007 0.402 0.001 0.012 0.001 0.144
TIBC (μg/dL) –0.0001 0.823 –0.0004 0.166 0.0003 0.664
Cadmium (μg/L)            
Hb (g/dL) –0.061 0.047 –0.049 0.002 0.066 0.006
Hct (%) –0.019 0.146 –0.013 0.036 0.025 0.003
Frtn (ng/mL) –0.006 0.0005 –0.006 < 0.0001 0.0006 0.136
Fe (μg/dL) –0.001 0.186 –0.002 < 0.0001 0.0002 0.753
TIBC (μg/dL) 0.003 0.0001 0.003 < 0.0001 0.0007 0.162

Abbreviations: HB, hemoglobin; HCT, hematocrit; Frtn, ferritin; Fe, iron; TIBC, total iron-binding capacity; 1) Multiple linear regression analysis

2) Adolescent girls: Adjusting for age, BMI, residence area, and drinking status. Premenopausa women and postmenopausal women: Adjusting for age, BMI, residence area, drinking status and smoking status

Table 6.
Associations between blood heavy metal concentrations and food consumption frequency (servings/day)
  Adolescent girls (n = 268) Premenopausal women (n = 1,157) Postmenopausal women (n = 446)
  β1) p2) β p β p
Lead (μg/dL)            
Grains 0.009 0.651 –0.012 0.202 –0.006 0.633
Soy and soybean products –0.050 0.108 –0.011 0.387 0.011 0.461
Potatoes –0.050 0.423 –0.149 0.004 –0.060 0.456
Meat and eggs –0.034 0.183 –0.057 0.016 –0.037 0.443
Fish and shellfish 0.011 0.701 –0.012 0.605 –0.035 0.245
Vegetables 0.005 0.728 0.0005 0.937 0.012 0.168
Seaweeds –0.049 0.308 –0.013 0.608 –0.011 0.750
Fruits –0.011 0.659 –0.047 0.001 –0.023 0.396
Milk and dairy products –0.114 0.001 –0.023 0.291 –0.062 0.161
Beverages 0.062 0.136 0.011 0.313 –0.009 0.585
Alcoholic beverages 0.277 0.157 0.070 0.359 0.057 0.433
Fast foods and fried foods 0.015 0.876 –0.096 0.260 –0.048 0.049
Mercury (μg/dL)            
Grains –0.009 0.788 –0.025 0.045 0.004 0.846
Soy and soybean products 0.084 0.132 –0.028 0.156 –0.005 0.792
Potatoes 0.055 0.740 –0.219 0.0004 –0.264 0.037
Meat and eggs 0.071 0.146 –0.054 0.123 –0.002 0.978
Fish and shellfish 0.178 0.001 0.056 0.041 0.073 0.054
Vegetables 0.004 0.850 0.006 0.583 –0.019 0.285
Seaweeds 0.092 0.254 –0.031 0.408 0.029 0.633
Fruits –0.008 0.878 –0.024 0.231 0.098 0.016
Milk and dairy products 0.005 0.917 –0.029 0.367 –0.034 0.486
Beverages –0.046 0.408 –0.010 0.555 –0.009 0.765
Alcoholic beverages –0.278 0.167 –0.009 0.930 0.140 0.307
Fast foods and fried foods –0.018 0.343 –0.097 0.318 –0.371 0.386
Cadmium (μg/dL)            
Grains –0.073 0.007 0.004 0.769 –0.003 0.875
Soy and soybean products –0.035 0.525 –0.017 0.374 –0.020 0.314
Potatoes –0.104 0.439 –0.147 0.026 –0.213 0.062
Meat and eggs –0.062 0.200 –0.063 0.032 –0.092 0.119
Fish and shellfish –0.016 0.755 0.034 0.194 –0.029 0.463
Vegetables –0.013 0.481 0.007 0.459 –0.008 0.496
Seaweeds –0.121 0.089 0.036 0.355 0.050 0.287
Fruits –0.049 0.270 –0.026 0.272 –0.025 0.370
Milk and dairy products –0.092 0.048 –0.040 0.165 –0.064 0.117
Beverages –0.008 0.914 –0.018 0.221 0.013 0.543
Alcoholic beverages 1.523 < 0.0001 0.127 0.186 0.018 0.850
Fast foods and fried foods –0.124 0.542 –0.166 0.088 –0.508 0.088

1) Multiple linear regression analysis 2) Adolescent girls: Adjusting for age, BMI, residence area, and drinking status. Premenopausa women and postmenopausal women: Adjusting for age, BMI, residence area, drinking status and smoking status

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