Seoeun Ahn; Shinyoung Jun; Minji Kang; Sangah Shin; Gyung-Ah Wie; Hyun Wook Baik; Hyojee Joung

doi:10.4163/jnh.2017.50.4.313

Journal List > J Nutr Health > v.50(4) > 1081507

Go to TopGo to Top Go to BottomGo to Bottom

TOOLS

Ahn, Jun, Kang, Shin, Wie, Baik, and Joung: Association between intake of antioxidant vitamins and metabolic syndrome risk among Korean adults∗

Research Article

J Nutr Health 2017;50(4):313-324.

Published online: 20 January 2017

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4163/jnh.2017.50.4.313

Association between intake of antioxidant vitamins and metabolic syndrome risk among Korean adults^∗

Seoeun Ahn¹, Shinyoung Jun¹, Minji Kang², Sangah Shin³, Gyung-Ah Wie⁴, Hyun Wook Baik⁵, Hyojee Joung^6,^†

¹Department of Public Health, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea

²Center for Gendered Innovations in Science and Technology Researches (GISTER), Korea Federation of Women's Science & Technology Associations, Seoul 06130, Korea

³Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Korea

⁴Department of Clinical Nutrition, Research Institute & Hospital, National Cancer Center, Goyang-si 10408, Korea

⁵Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology & Clinical Nutrition, DMC Bundang Jesaeng Hospital, Seongnam 13590, Korea

⁶Institute of Health and Environment, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea

^†To whom correspondence should be addressed. tel: +82-2-880-2831, E-mail: hjjoung@snu.ac.kr

^∗ This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government (MSIP) (NRF-2014R1A2A2A01003138).

Received 11 May 2017 Revised 21 May 2017 Accepted 14 July 2017

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between intake of antioxidant vitamins and prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) among Korean adults. Methods: A total of 614 subjects aged 30∼60 years were recruited from those who received a medical checkup at a general hospital in South Korea between 2009 and 2012. Presence of MetS was determined based on criteria issued by the NCEP ATP III. Intakes of antioxidant vitamins (vitamin A, retinol, carotenoids, vitamin C, and vitamin E) were estimated by combining 3-day diet records with an antioxidant vitamin database for common Korean foods. We used multiple logistic regression analysis to assess the association between dietary intakes of antioxidant vitamins and MetS. Results: Men in the highest tertile for retinol (OR = 0.40, 95% CI = 0.23∼0.71, P for trend = 0.0009), carotenoids (OR = 0.57, 95% CI = 0.32∼1.00, P for trend = 0.0470), and vitamin E (OR = 0.52, 95% CI = 0.30∼0.92, P for trend = 0.0190) intakes had a lower likelihood of having Mets than those in the lowest tertile. The OR of high fasting blood glucose among men in the highest tertile for vitamin A (µg RE: OR = 0.55, 95% CI = 0.32∼0.97, P for trend = 0.0417, µg RAE: OR = 0.52, 95% CI = 0.29∼0.92, P for trend = 0.0211), carotenoids (OR = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.23∼0.73, P for trend = 0.0036), and vitamin E (OR = 0.47, 95% CI = 0.26∼0.82, P for trend = 0.0080) intakes was lower than those in the lowest tertile. In women, subjects in the highest tertile of retinol intakes had a lower prevalence of MetS than those in the lowest tertile group (OR = 0.55, 95% CI = 0.30∼0.98). The OR for abdominal obesity was lower among women with the highest vitamin A (µg RE) intakes compared to those in the lowest tertile (OR = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.28∼0.93, P for trend = 0.0293). Conclusion: These results suggest that dietary intakes of antioxidant vitamins might be associated with reduced risk of having MetS among Korean adults.

Keywords: antioxidant vitamins, metabolic syndrome, Korean adult

References

1. Korean Statistical Information Service. Cause of death statistics [Internet]. Daejeon: Statistics Korea;2016. [cited 2017 Mar 2]. Available from:. http://kosis.kr/statisticsList/statisticsList_01List. jsp?vwcd=MT_ZTITLE&parmTabId=M_01_01.

2. Haffner SM, Valdez RA, Hazuda HP, Mitchell BD, Morales PA, Stern MP. Prospective analysis of the insulin-resistance syndrome (syndrome X). Diabetes. 1992; 41(6):715–722.

3. Schulman RC, Mechanick JI. Metabolic and nutrition support in the chronic critical illness syndrome. Respir Care. 2012; 57(6):958–977.

4. Yang M, Chung SJ, Floegel A, Song WO, Koo SI, Chun OK. Dietary antioxidant capacity is associated with improved serum antioxidant status and decreased serum C-reactive protein and plasma homocysteine concentrations. Eur J Nutr. 2013; 52(8):1901–1911.

5. Lim S, Shin H, Song JH, Kwak SH, Kang SM, Won Yoon J, Choi SH, Cho SI, Park KS, Lee HK, Jang HC, Koh KK. Increasing prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Korea: the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 1998–2007. Diabetes Care. 2011; 34(6):1323–1328.

6. Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey ‘07∼'10 [Internet]. Cheongwon: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2012. [cited 2017 Mar 2]. Available from:. https://knhanes.cdc.go.kr/knhanes/index.do.

7. Furukawa S, Fujita T, Shimabukuro M, Iwaki M, Yamada Y, Nakajima Y, Nakayama O, Makishima M, Matsuda M, Shimomura I. Increased oxidative stress in obesity and its impact on metabolic syndrome. J Clin Invest. 2004; 114(12):1752–1761.

8. Apel K, Hirt H. Reactive oxygen species: metabolism, oxidative stress, and signal transduction. Annu Rev Plant Biol. 2004; 55(1):373–399.

9. Rubin E, Reisner HM. Essentials of Rubin's pathology. 5th ed.Philadelphia (PA): Lippincott Williams & Wilkins;2009.

10. Block G. The data support a role for antioxidants in reducing cancer risk. Nutr Rev. 1992; 50(7):207–213.

11. Diaz MN, Frei B, Vita JA, Keaney JF Jr. Antioxidants and atherosclerotic heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1997; 337(6):408–416.

12. Hirashima O, Kawano H, Motoyama T, Hirai N, Ohgushi M, Kugiyama K, Ogawa H, Yasue H. Improvement of endothelial function and insulin sensitivity with vitamin C in patients with coronary spastic angina: possible role of reactive oxygen species. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 35(7):1860–1866.

13. Som S, Basu S, Mukherjee D, Deb S, ChoudhuryPR , Mukherjee S, Chatterjee SN, Chatterjee IB. Ascorbic acid metabolism in diabetes mellitus. Metabolism. 1981; 30(6):572–577.

14. Rao LG, Rao AV. Oxidative stress and antioxidants in the risk of osteoporosis: role of the antioxidants lycopene and polyphenols. Valdes-Flores M, editor. Topics in Osteoporosis. Rijeka: InTech;2013. p. 117–161.

15. Puchau B, Zulet MA, de Echávarri AG, Hermsdorff HH, Martínez JA. Dietary total antioxidant capacity is negatively associated with some metabolic syndrome features in healthy young adults. Nutrition. 2010; 26(5):534–541.

16. Li Y, Guo H, Wu M, Liu M. Serum and dietary antioxidant status is associated with lower prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in a study in Shanghai, China. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2013; 22(1):60–68.

17. Sluijs I, Beulens JW, Grobbee DE, van der Schouw YT. Dietary carotenoid intake is associated with lower prevalence of metabolic syndrome in middle-aged and elderly men. J Nutr. 2009; 139(5):987–992.

18. Kim SA, Jun S, Joung H. Estimated dietary intake of vitamin A in Korean adults: based on the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007–2012. J Nutr Health. 2016; 49(4):258–268.

19. Ashor AW, Siervo M, Lara J, Oggioni C, Afshar S, Mathers JC. Effect of vitamin C and vitamin E supplementation on endothelial function: a systematic review and metaanalysis of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr. 2015; 113(8):1182–1194.

20. Zhao S, Li R, Li Y, Chen W, Zhang Y, Chen G. Roles of vitamin A status and retinoids in glucose and fatty acid metabolism. Biochem Cell Biol. 2012; 90(2):142–152.

21. Ylönen K, Alfthan G, Groop L, Saloranta C, Aro A, Virtanen SM. Dietary intakes and plasma concentrations of carotenoids and tocopherols in relation to glucose metabolism in subjects at high risk of type 2 diabetes: the Botnia Dietary Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003; 77(6):1434–1441.

22. Manning PJ, Sutherland WH, Walker RJ, Williams SM, De Jong SA, Ryalls AR, Berry EA. Effect of high-dose vitamin E on insulin resistance and associated parameters in overweight subjects. Diabetes Care. 2004; 27(9):2166–2171.

23. Kang NE, Kim WK. Effects of antioxidant vitamins supplementation on antioxidative status and plasma lipid profiles in Korean NIDDM patients. Korean J Nutr. 1999; 32(7):775–780.

24. Scott KJ, Thurnham DI, Hart DJ, Bingham SA, Day K. The correlation between the intake of lutein, lycopene and â-carotene from vegetables and fruits, and blood plasma concentrations in a group of women aged 50–65 years in the UK. Br J Nutr. 1996; 75(3):409–418.

25. Lee Y, Lee HS, Jang YA, Lee HJ, Kim BH, Kim CI. Dietary intake pattern of the Korean adult population by weight status: 2001 national health and nutrition survey. Korean J Community Nutr. 2006; 11(3):317–26.

26. Zulet MA, Puchau B, Hermsdorff HH, Navarro C, Martínez JA. Vitamin A intake is inversely related with adiposity in healthy young adults. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2008; 54(5):347–352.

27. Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2014: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES VI-2) [Internet]. Cheongju: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2015. [cited 2017 Mar 2]. Available from:. http://knhanes.cdc.go.kr.

28. Institute of Medicine (US). Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press;2001.

29. Ministry of Health and Welfare (KR); The Korean Nutrition Society. Dietary reference intakes for Koreans 2015. Sejong: Ministry of Health and Welfare;2016.

30. Park S, Ham JO, Lee BK. Effects of total vitamin A, vitamin C, and fruit intake on risk for metabolic syndrome in Korean women and men. Nutrition. 2015; 31(1):111–118.

31. Bian S, Gao Y, Zhang M, Wang X, Liu W, Zhang D, Huang G. Dietary nutrient intake and metabolic syndrome risk in Chinese adults: a case-control study. Nutr J. 2013; 12(1):106.

32. Ford ES, Mokdad AH, Giles WH, Brown DW. The metabolic syndrome and antioxidant concentrations: findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Diabetes. 2003; 52(9):2346–2352.

33. Esmaillzadeh A, Kimiagar M, Mehrabi Y, Azadbakht L, Hu FB, Willett WC. Fruit and vegetable intakes, C-reactive protein, and the metabolic syndrome. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006; 84(6):1489–1497.

34. Panagiotakos DB, Pitsavos C, Skoumas Y, Stefanadis C. The association between food patterns and the metabolic syndrome using principal components analysis: the ATTICA Study. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007; 107(6):979–987.

35. Hong S, Song Y, Lee KH, Lee HS, Lee M, Jee SH, Joung H. A fruit and dairy dietary pattern is associated with a reduced risk of metabolic syndrome. Metabolism. 2012; 61(6):883–890.

36. Dugan CE, Barona J, Fernandez ML. Increased dairy consumption differentially improves metabolic syndrome markers in male and female adults. Metab Syndr Relat Disord. 2014; 12(1):62–69.

37. Ballard KD, Mah E, Guo Y, Pei R, Volek JS, Bruno RS. Low-fat milk ingestion prevents postprandial hyperglycemia-mediated impairments in vascular endothelial function in obese individuals with metabolic syndrome. J Nutr. 2013; 143(10):1602–1610.

38. Lee YJ, Seo JA, Yoon T, Seo I, Lee JH, Im D, Lee JH, Bahn KN, Ham HS, Jeong SA, Kang TS, Ahn JH, Kim DH, Nam GE, Kim NH. Effects of low-fat milk consumption on metabolic and atherogenic biomarkers in Korean adults with the metabolic syndrome: a randomised controlled trial. J Hum Nutr Diet. 2016; 29(4):477–486.

39. Kim D, Kim J. Dairy consumption is associatedwith a lower incidence of the metabolic syndrome in middle-aged and older Korean adults: the Korean Genome and Epidemiology Study (KoGES). Br J Nutr. 2017; 117(1):148–160.

40. Kim MH, Lee HS, Park HJ, Kim WY. Risk factors associated with metabolic syndrome in Korean elderly. Ann Nutr Metab. 2007; 51(6):533–540.

41. Kim J, Choi YH. Physical activity, dietary vitamin C, and metabolic syndrome in the Korean adults: the Korea NationalHealth and Nutrition Examination Survey 2008 to 2012. Public Health. 2016; 135:30–37.

42. Westenhoefer J. Age and gender dependent profile of food choice. Forum Nutr. 2005; 57:44–51.

43. Regitz-Zagrosek V. Sex and gender differences in health. Science & Society Series on Sex and Science. EMBO Rep. 2012; 13(7):596–603.

44. FerranniniE. Haffner SM, Mitchell BD, Stern MP. Hyperinsulinaemia: the key feature of a cardiovascular and metabolic syndrome. Diabetologia. 1991; 34(6):416–422.

45. Godala MM, Materek-Kuśmierkiewicz I, Moczulski D, Rutkows-kiM , Szatko F, Gaszyńska E, Tokarski S, Kowalski J. Lower plasma levels of antioxidant vitamins in patients with metabolic syndrome: a case control study. Adv Clin Exp Med. 2016; 25(4):689–700.

46. Motamed S, Ebrahimi M, Safarian M, Ghayour-Mobarhan M, Mouhebati M, Azarpazhouh M, Esmailie H, Norouzi A, Ferns GA. Micronutrient intake and the presence of the metabolic syndrome. N Am J Med Sci. 2013; 5(6):377–385.

Table 1.

General characteristics of study subjects

	Men				Women				P-value⁵⁾
	Total (n = 317)	MetS³⁾ (n = 185)	Control (n = 132)	P-value⁴⁾	Total (n = 297)	MetS³⁾ (n = 121)	Control (n = 176)	P-value⁴⁾	P-value⁵⁾
Age (years)¹⁾	45.4 ± 7.9	45.4 ± 7.6	45.4 ± 8.3	0.9794	48.2 ± 7.2	49.0 ± 7.2	47.7 ± 7.1	0.1156	< 0.0001
BMI (kg/m²)¹⁾	26.4 ± 2.8	27.0 ± 2.9	25.6 ± 2.5	< 0.0001	24.9 ± 3.4	26.2 ± 2.9	24.0 ± 3.5	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
Smoking status (yes)²⁾	136 (42.9)	84 (45.4)	52 (39.4)	0.2864	8 (2.7)	1 (0.8)	7 (4.0)	0.0994	< 0.0001
Alcohol consumption (yes)²⁾⁶⁾	149 (47.0)	95 (51.4)	54 (40.9)	0.0663	30 (10.1)	13 (10.7)	17 (9.7)	0.7605	< 0.0001
Physical activity (yes)²⁾⁷⁾	71 (22.4)	43 (23.2)	28 (21.2)	0.6846	51 (17.2)	21 (17.4)	30 (17.1)	1.0000	0.1049
Metabolic syndrome risk factors²⁾
Abdominal obesity⁸⁾	173 (54.6)	129 (69.7)	44 (33.3)	< 0.0001	192 (64.7)	107 (88.4)	85 (48.3)	< 0.0001	0.0111
Hypertriglyceridemia⁹⁾	244 (77.0)	169 (91.4)	75 (56.8)	< 0.0001	117 (39.4)	75 (62.0)	42 (23.9)	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
Low HDL-cholesterol¹⁰⁾	95 (30.0)	70 (37.8)	25 (18.9)	0.0003	129 (43.4)	80 (66.1)	49 (27.8)	< 0.0001	0.0005
Elevated blood pressure¹¹⁾	218 (68.8)	150 (81.1)	68 (51.5)	< 0.0001	147 (49.5)	87 (71.9)	60 (34.1)	< 0.0001	< 0.0001
High fasting blood glucose¹²⁾	155 (48.9)	116 (62.7)	39 (29.6)	< 0.0001	78 (26.3)	52 (43.0)	26 (14.8)	< 0.0001	< 0.0001

¹⁾ Values are mean ± SD.

²⁾ Values are N (%).

³⁾ MetS was defined using the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria with a modified waist circumference cutoff for Asian populations provided by the International Diabetes Federation.

⁴⁾ P-values for the difference between MetS group and control group, obtained by chi-square test for categorical variables and t-test for continuous variables.

⁵⁾ P-values for the difference between total men and total women, obtained by chi-square test for categorical variables and t-test for continuous variables.

⁶⁾ Subjects who drank more than twice a week.

⁷⁾ Subjects engaged in a physical activity at least 5 days or more per week and lasting at least 30 min or more at moderate intensity or at least 3 days or more per week and lasting at least 20 min or more at vigorous intensity.

⁸⁾ Waist circumference ≥ 90 cm (men) or ≥ 80 cm (women)

⁹⁾ Fasting triglyceride ≥ 150 μg/dL

¹⁰⁾ Fasting HDL-cholesterol < 40 μg/dL (men) or < 50 μg/dL (women)

¹¹⁾ Systolic blood pressure ≥ 130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥ 85 mmHg

¹²⁾ Fasting blood glucose ≥ 100 μg/dL

Table 2.

Comparison of daily antioxidant vitamin intakes between MetS cases and controls

	Men				Women				P-value⁴⁾
	Total (n = 317)	MetS²⁾ (n = 185)	Control (n = 132)	P-value³⁾	Total (n = 297)	MetS²⁾ (n = 121)	Control (n = 176)	P-value³⁾	P-value⁴⁾
Nutrient intake¹⁾
Energy (kcal)	1,959.3 ± 507.6	1,967.5 ± 512.5	1,947.8 ± 502.4	0.7335	1,559.2 ± 475.7	1,561.5 ± 534.2	1,557.6 ± 432.5	0.9461	< 0.0001
Protein (g)	80.1 ± 27.0	79.3 ± 24.9	81.2 ± 29.8	0.5384	62.8 ± 24.8	62.2 ± 26.9	63.3 ± 23.3	0.7074	< 0.0001
Lipid (g)	49.4 ± 19.6	48.9 ± 18.7	50.1 ± 20.8	0.5760	40.2 ± 19.2	39.0 ± 20.1	41.0 ± 18.5	0.3855	< 0.0001
Carbohydrate (g)	273.9 ± 71.4	270.5 ± 69.2	278.8 ± 74.5	0.3061	236.9 ± 73.4	243.5 ± 81.0	232.3 ± 67.6	0.2144	< 0.0001
Vitamin A (μg RE)	712.5 ± 469.4	711.5 ± 552.9	714.0 ± 319.6	0.9586	670.7 ± 413.6	661.2 ± 407.3	677.2 ± 418.9	0.7435	0.2408
Vitamin A (μg RAE)	413.9 ± 259.2	408.5 ± 300.4	421.6 ± 187.6	0.6340	386.2 ± 237.5	380.3 ± 241.8	390.3 ± 235.0	0.7222	0.1685
Retinol (μg)	115.4 ± 122.0	105.5 ± 125.1	129.1 ± 116.5	0.0892	101.8 ± 129.7	99.4 ± 139.8	103.4 ± 122.7	0.7961	0.1822
Carotenoids (μg)	8,866.6 ± 7,971.8	8,628.7 ± 8,833.1	9,200.0 ± 6,596.3	0.5103	9,123.8 ± 7,863.2	8,939.5 ± 7,828.0	9,250.5 ± 7907.0	0.7383	0.6877
Vitamin C (mg)	78.1 ± 62.0	77.9 ± 67.9	78.4 ± 53.0	0.9430	84.5 ± 64.3	91.0 ± 69.6	80.1 ± 60.2	0.1529	0.2083
Vitamin E (mg α-TE)	6.5 ± 2.3	6.4 ± 2.4	6.6 ± 2.2	0.3098	5.6 ± 2.4	6.0 ± 2.8	5.4 ± 2.1	0.0649	< 0.0001
Nutrient density¹⁾
Protein (g/1,000 kcal)	40.8 ± 8.4	40.3 ± 7.6	41.5 ± 9.5	0.2266	40.1 ± 9.3	39.7 ± 10.8	40.4 ± 8.2	0.5653	0.3235
Lipid (g/1,000 kcal)	24.9 ± 6.4	24.6 ± 6.4	25.4 ± 6.5	0.3380	25.2 ± 7.5	24.3 ± 6.9	25.9 ± 7.8	0.0699	0.6010
Carbohydrate (g/1,000 kcal)	142.3 ± 25.8	140.2 ± 25.8	145.4 ± 25.7	0.0768	153.6 ± 22.7	158.1 ± 23.1	150.6 ± 21.9	0.0049	< 0.0001
Vitamin A (μg RE/1,000 kcal)	363.8 ± 177.9	355.7 ± 182.7	375.2 ± 170.9	0.3372	438.7 ± 272.3	437.0 ± 274.6	439.9 ± 271.5	0.9304	< 0.0001
Vitamin A (μg RAE/1,000 kcal)	211.5 ± 101.1	204.7 ± 102.7	221.2 ± 98.2	0.1524	252.4 ± 156.6	252.0 ± 171.6	252.7 ± 146.0	0.9673	0.0002
Retinol (μg/1,000 kcal)	59.2 ± 59.6	53.6 ± 59.0	67.1 ± 59.7	0.0466	66.1 ± 90.4	66.9 ± 116.4	65.6 ± 67.3	0.9122	0.2661
Carotenoids (μg/1,000 kcal)	4,614.0 ± 4,252.7	4,432.3 ± 4,374.5	4,868.6 ± 4,078.7	0.3687	6,039.8 ± 5,225.1	5,993.8 ± 5,139.1	6,071.4 ± 5,297.8	0.9001	0.0002
Vitamin C (mg/1,000 kcal)	40.1 ± 28.9	39.4 ± 30.0	41.1 ± 27.4	0.6167	55.6 ± 39.3	60.4 ± 42.7	52.4 ± 36.5	0.0843	< 0.0001
Vitamin E (mg α-TE/1,000 kcal)	3.3 ± 1.0	3.3 ± 1.0	3.5 ± 1.0	0.0731	3.6 ± 1.2	3.8 ± 1.4	3.5 ± 1.1	0.0297	0.0018

¹⁾ Values are mean ± SD.

²⁾ MetS was defined using the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria with a modified waist circumference cutoff for Asian populations provided by the International Diabetes Federation.

¹⁾ P-values for the difference between MetS group and control group, obtained by t-test.

⁴⁾ P-values for the difference between total men and total women, obtained by t-test.

Table 3.

Odds ratios and 95% CIs for metabolic syndrome risk factors according to tertiles of antioxidant vitamin intakes

Men				Women				P for trend⁹⁾
	T1	T2	T3	P for trend⁹⁾	T1	T2	T3	P for trend⁹⁾
Abdominal obesity¹⁾⁷⁾
Vitamin A (μg RE)	1.00	0.71 (0.41–1.25)	0.91 (0.52–1.59)	0.8309	1.00	0.69 (0.37–1.29)	0.51 (0.28–0.93)	0.0293
Vitamin A (μg RAE)	1.00	0.79 (0.45–1.38)	0.90 (0.51–1.58)	0.7467	1.00	0.70 (0.38–1.29)	0.59 (0.32–1.09)	0.0958
Retinol	1.00	1.10 (0.63–1.94)	0.77 (0.44–1.34)	0.3086	1.00	0.80 (0.44–1.45)	0.89 (0.49–1.63)	0.8010
Carotenoids	1.00	1.31 (0.75–2.28)	1.17 (0.66–2.05)	0.6681	1.00	0.79 (0.43–1.43)	0.78 (0.42–1.44)	0.4821
Vitamin C	1.00	1.71 (0.97–3.01)	1.61 (0.91–2.84)	0.1442	1.00	0.65 (0.35–1.18)	0.76 (0.41–1.42)	0.5108
Vitamin E	1.00	1.02 (0.59–1.77)	1.12 (0.64–1.97)	0.6834	1.00	1.03 (0.56–1.89)	0.80 (0.43–1.46)	0.4158
Hypertriglyceridemia²⁾⁸⁾
Vitamin A (μg RE)	1.00	0.85 (0.44–1.63)	1.18 (0.59–2.36)	0.5852	1.00	0.64 (0.35–1.18)	0.94 (0.52–1.68)	0.8917
Vitamin A (μg RAE)	1.00	1.13 (0.58–2.18)	1.32 (0.67–2.62)	0.4242	1.00	0.52 (0.28–0.95)	0.93 (0.52–1.67)	0.9731
Retinol	1.00	1.06 (0.52–2.17)	0.62 (0.32–1.20)	0.1161	1.00	0.78 (0.44–1.41)	0.75 (0.42–1.36)	0.3891
Carotenoids	1.00	0.75 (0.39–1.43)	1.66 (0.80–3.42)	0.1217	1.00	1.30 (0.72–2.33)	0.92 (0.50–1.68)	0.6191
Vitamin C	1.00	0.96 (0.48–1.92)	0.77 (0.39–1.52)	0.4246	1.00	0.89 (0.49–1.59)	0.70 (0.39–1.28)	0.2459
Vitamin E	1.00	1.84 (0.93–3.65)	1.09 (0.57–2.10)	0.8757	1.00	0.77 (0.43–1.40)	1.10 (0.61–1.99)	0.6589
Low HDL-cholesterol³⁾⁸⁾
Vitamin A (μg RE)	1.00	1.51 (0.81–2.83)	1.54 (0.83–2.88)	0.2099	1.00	0.94 (0.52–1.71)	1.39 (0.77–2.50)	0.2568
Vitamin A (μg RAE)	1.00	1.96 (1.03–3.71)	1.84 (0.97–3.49)	0.0879	1.00	1.25 (0.69–2.28)	1.33 (0.73–2.41)	0.3654
Retinol	1.00	1.03 (0.55–1.92)	1.20 (0.65–2.21)	0.5455	1.00	0.87 (0.48–1.57)	0.77 (0.43–1.39)	0.4001
Carotenoids	1.00	0.96 (0.52–1.79)	1.02 (0.55–1.89)	0.9266	1.00	1.40 (0.78–2.52)	1.12 (0.61–2.05)	0.8732
Vitamin C	1.00	1.91 (1.02–3.58)	1.36 (0.71–2.59)	0.5207	1.00	0.86 (0.47–1.55)	1.48 (0.81–2.69)	0.1426
Vitamin E	1.00	1.23 (0.67–2.25)	0.95 (0.50–1.77)	0.8058	1.00	1.11 (0.61–2.01)	1.73 (0.94–3.18)	0.0674
Elevated blood pressure⁴⁾⁸⁾
Vitamin A (μg RE)	1.00	1.01 (0.55–1.86)	0.89 (0.49–1.62)	0.6831	1.00	1.29 (0.70–2.37)	1.07 (0.58–1.98)	0.8549
Vitamin A (μg RAE)	1.00	0.73 (0.40–1.35)	0.74 (0.40–1.36)	0.3596	1.00	1.13 (0.61–2.08)	0.88 (0.48–1.63)	0.6459
Retinol	1.00	0.94 (0.51–1.77)	0.58 (0.32–1.06)	0.0630	1.00	0.63 (0.34–1.15)	0.79 (0.43–1.44)	0.5804
Carotenoids	1.00	1.85 (1.00–3.44)	1.11 (0.62–2.01)	0.9284	1.00	1.18 (0.64–2.16)	1.05 (0.57–1.94)	0.9568
Vitamin C	1.00	0.94 (0.51–1.73)	1.00 (0.54–1.85)	0.9749	1.00	1.38 (0.75–2.53)	1.53 (0.83–2.84)	0.2014
Vitamin E	1.00	0.78 (0.42–1.44)	0.64 (0.35–1.18)	0.1562	1.00	2.14 (1.15–3.98)	1.45 (0.78–2.73)	0.3696
High fasting blood glucose⁵⁾⁸⁾
Vitamin A (μg RE)	1.00	0.72 (0.41–1.25)	0.55 (0.32–0.97)	0.0417	1.00	0.76 (0.37–1.54)	1.06 (0.54–2.08)	0.8323
Vitamin A (μg RAE)	1.00	0.86 (0.49–1.49)	0.52 (0.29–0.92)	0.0211	1.00	0.77 (0.38–1.55)	0.96 (0.49–1.89)	0.9527
Retinol	1.00	1.08 (0.62–1.89)	0.72 (0.41–1.26)	0.2096	1.00	0.74 (0.37–1.47)	0.86 (0.43–1.71)	0.7412
Carotenoids	1.00	0.56 (0.32–0.99)	0.41 (0.23–0.73)	0.0036	1.00	1.14 (0.57–2.27)	0.87 (0.43–1.74)	0.6136
Vitamin C	1.00	0.68 (0.38–1.19)	0.61 (0.34–1.07)	0.1026	1.00	2.11 (1.02–4.35)	1.87 (0.91–3.84)	0.1578
Vitamin E	1.00	0.75 (0.43–1.31)	0.47 (0.26–0.82)	0.0080	1.00	0.67 (0.33–1.37)	1.10 (0.56–2.18)	0.6454
Metabolic syndrome⁶⁾⁷⁾
Vitamin A (μg RE)	1.00	0.71 (0.41–1.26)	0.63 (0.36–1.10)	0.1168	1.00	0.72 (0.40–1.29)	0.86 (0.48–1.52)	0.6299
Vitamin A (μg RAE)	1.00	0.81 (0.46–1.42)	0.65 (0.37–1.14)	0.1314	1.00	0.76 (0.43–1.36)	0.68 (0.38–1.22)	0.2008
Retinol	1.00	0.90 (0.51–1.61)	0.40 (0.23–0.71)	0.0009	1.00	0.48 (0.27–0.86)	0.55 (0.30–0.98)	0.0824
Carotenoids	1.00	0.82 (0.47–1.44)	0.57 (0.32–1.00)	0.0470	1.00	1.30 (0.73–2.32)	0.98 (0.54–1.76)	0.7816
Vitamin C	1.00	1.12 (0.64–1.97)	0.87 (0.49–1.53)	0.5580	1.00	0.76 (0.42–1.36)	1.24 (0.69–2.21)	0.3459
Vitamin E	1.00	1.00 (0.56–1.76)	0.52 (0.30–0.92)	0.0190	1.00	1.16 (0.65–2.09)	1.70 (0.94–3.08)	0.0705

¹⁾ Waist circumference ≥ 90 cm (men) or ≥ 80 cm (women) 2) Fasting triglyceride ≥ 150 μg/dL 3) Fasting HDL-cholesterol < 40 μg/dL (men) or < 50 μg/dL (women) 4) Systolic blood pressure ≥ 130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥ 85 mmHg 5) Fasting blood glucose ≥ 100 μg/dL 6) MetS was defined using the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria with a modified waist circumference cutoff for Asian populations provided by the International Diabetes Federation. 7) ORs, 95% CIs, and P for trends were adjusted for age, smoking status, alcohol consumption and physical activity. 8) ORs, 95% CIs, and P for trends were adjusted for age, smoking status, alcohol consumption, physical activity and BMI. 9) P-values were from generalized linear model analysis.

Table 4.

Comparison of dietary antioxidant vitamin intakes from each food group between MetS cases and controls

	Men
	Vitamin A (μg RE)		Vitamin A (μg RAE)		Retinol (μg)		Carotenoids (μg)		Vitamin C (mg)		Vitamin E (mg α-TE)
	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control
Grains	80.2 ± 53.2¹⁾³⁾	91.4 ± 101.5	6.2 ± 13.6	13.7 ± 39.6	4.3 ± 12.1∗	11.9 ± 36.4	141.2 ± 368.5	222.2 ± 998.4	0.1 ± 0.4∗	0.4 ± 1.3	0.9 ± 0.6	1.0 ± 0.9
Vegetables	422.3 ± 375.0	422.9 ± 257.9	186.1 ± 221.3	189.8 ± 129.5	1.1 ± 2.3	1.5 ± 3.1	5,347.8 ± 7,734.7	4,829.6 ± 3,765.5	37.3 ± 20.8	35.5 ± 22.1	1.3 ± 0.8	1.3 ± 0.7
Fruits	86.6 ± 218.3	81.1 ± 100.9	31.7 ± 102.8	28.0 ± 41.4	0.0 ± 0.2	0.0 ± 0.1 1	1,490.3 ± 3,715.7∗	2,523.4 ± 5,055.7	31.1 ± 62.2	32.6 ± 47.9	0.3 ± 0.5	0.3 ± 0.4
Eggs	110.6 ± 100.0	131.6 ± 113.7	28.2 ± 34.6	31.8 ± 29.1	27.8 ± 34.3	31.3 ± 28.7	111.2 ± 99.6	133.1 ± 115.5	0.0	0.0	1.0 ± 0.9	1.2 ± 1.1
Fishes & shellfishes	99.6 ± 156.7	95.8 ± 141.6	34.6 ± 109.0	33.0 ± 72.9	34.3 ± 108.9	32.6 ± 73.0	4.2 ± 28.4	4.3 ± 15.4	0.7 ± 1.1	0.5 ± 0.8	0.9 ± 0.9	0.8 ± 1.0
Milk &dairy products	19.2 ± 36.4∗∗	39.6 ± 63.4	14.4 ± 27.5∗∗	29.4 ± 48.0	14.2 ± 27.3∗∗	28.9 ± 47.5	2.0 ± 5.2∗	6.3 ± 19.0	0.1 ± 0.5	0.1 ± 0.7	0.1 ± 0.1∗∗∗	∗ 0.1 ± 0.2
	Women
	Vitamin A (μg RE)		Vitamin A (μg RAE)		Retinol (μg)		Carotenoids (μg)		Vitamin C (mg)		Vitamin E (mg α-TE)
	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control	MetS²⁾	Control
Grains	80.3 ± 66.5	82.8 ± 81.0	9.5 ± 17.1	14.9 ± 44.0	6.9 ± 16.0	11.8 ± 39.7	254.8 ± 712.0	290.6 ± 762.8	0.5 ± 1.9	0.5 ± 2.1	0.9 ± 0.7	0.9 ± 0.6
Vegetables	403.6 ± 317.7	424.3 ± 321.8	176.9 ± 160.2	194.1 ± 169.5	1.2 ± 2.4	1.7 ± 4.2	5,210.1 ± 5,460.6	5,790.8 ± 5,768.5	31.5 ± 23.1	35.7 ± 28.4	1.2 ± 0.8	1.1 ± 0.7
Fruits	121.3 ± 185.9	97.9 ± 156.7	40.6 ± 78.0	32.3 ± 61.0	0.0 ± 0.0	0.0 ± 0.1	2,185.9 ± 5,632.1	2,002.3 ± 4,072.4	48.3 ± 60.7∗	34.4 ± 46.1	0.5 ± 0.7	0.4 ± 0.7
Eggs	76.8 ± 76.5	70.2 ± 69.4	20.0 ± 24.7	18.4 ± 21.5	19.7 ± 24.5	18.1 ± 21.3	78.2 ± 77.8	71.2 ± 70.6	0.0	0.0	0.7 ± 0.7	0.6 ± 0.7
Fishes & shellfishes	85.9 ± 199.9	61.1 ± 79.9	32.8 ± 123.0	16.3 ± 28.7	32.7 ± 123.0	16.2 ± 28.6	1.6 ± 6.4	2.4 ± 7.5	0.3 ± 0.4∗	0.4 ± 0.6	0.7 ± 1.0	0.6 ± 0.8
Milk & dairy products	31.8 ± 51.0	43.1 ± 65.3	23.9 ± 38.7	32.3 ± 48.7	23.6 ± 38.2	32.0 ± 48.4	3.5 ± 10.1	3.7 ± 7.1	0.0 ± 0.3	0.2 ± 1.4	0.1 ± 0.2∗	0.1 ± 0.2

¹⁾ Values are mean ± SD. 2) MetS was defined using the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III criteria with a modified waist circumference cutoff for Asian populations provided by the International Diabetes Federation. 3) The value in the MetS group is significantly different from that of the control group at

^∗ p < 0.05,

^∗∗ p < 0.01, and

^∗∗∗ p < 0.001 by t-test.

TOOLS

Similar articles