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Abstract
Purpose
This study was conducted to examine coffee consumption behaviors, dietary habits, and nutrient intakes by coffee intake amount among university students. Methods: Questionnaires were distributed to 300 university students randomly selected in Gongju. Dietary survey was administered during two weekdays by the food record method. Results: Subjects were divided into three groups: NCG (non-coffee group), LCG (low coffee group, 1∼2 cups/d), and HCG (high coffee group, 3 cups/d) by coffee intake amount and subjects' distribution. Coffee intake frequency was significantly greater in the HCG compared to the LCG (p < 0.001). The HCG was more likely to intake dripped coffee with or without milk and/or sugar than the LCG (p < 0.05). More than 80% of coffee drinkers chose their favorite coffee or accompanying snacks regardless of energy content. More than 75% of coffee takers did not eat accompanying snacks instead of meals, and the HCG ate them more frequently than LCG (p < 0.05). Breakfast skipping rate was high while vegetable and fruit intakes were very low in most subjects. Subjects who drank carbonated drinks, sweet beverages, or alcohol were significantly greater in number in the LCG and HCG than in the NCG (p < 0.01). Energy intakes from coffee were 0.88 ± 5.62 kcal/d and 7.07 ± 16.93 kcal/d for the LCG and HCG. For total subjects, daily mean dietary energy intake was low at less than 72% of estimated energy requirement. Levels of vitamin C and calcium were lower than the estimated average requirements while that of vitamin D was low (24∼34% of adequate intake). There was no difference in nutrient intakes by coffee intake amount, except protein, vitamin A, and niacin. Conclusion: Coffee intake amount did not affect dietary nutrient intakes. Dietary habits were poor, and most nutrient intakes were lower than recommend levels. High intakes of coffee seemed to be related with high consumption of sweet beverages and alcohol. Therefore, it is necessary to improve nutritional intakes and encourage proper water intake habits, including coffee intake, for improved nutritional status of subjects.
References
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Table 1.
Coffee intake and general characteristics
| Variables | NCG (n = 104) | LCG (n = 107) | HCG (n = 89) | Total (n = 300) | Significance1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender | |||||
| Males | 432) (41.3)3) | 58 (54.2) | 41 (46.1) | 142 (47.3) | 3.580NS |
| Females | 61 (58.7) | 49 (45.8) | 48 (53.9) | 158 (52.7) | |
| Residence type | |||||
| Living with family | 16 (15.4) | 9 (8.4) | 16 (18.0) | 41 (13.7) | 10.987∗ |
| Living by myself | 31 (29.8) | 50 (46.7) | 25 (28.1) | 106 (35.3) | |
| Dormitory or boarding | 57 (54.8) | 48 (44.9) | 48 (53.9) | 153 (51.0) | |
| Sleep sufficiency during last 1 year | |||||
| Not sufficient | 34 (32.7) | 39 (36.5) | 37 (41.6) | 110 (36.6) | 4.447NS |
| Moderate | 35 (33.7) | 38 (35.5) | 34 (38.2) | 107 (35.7) | |
| Sufficient | 35 (33.6) | 30 (28.0) | 18 (20.2) | 83 (27.7) | |
| Excercise time during last 1 year | |||||
| Rarely | 9 (8.7) | 9 (8.4) | 7 (7.9) | 25 (8.3) | 3.349NS |
| Within 30 min/d | 26 (25.0) | 25 (23.4) | 26 (29.2) | 77 (25.7) | |
| 30 min ∼ 1 hr/d | 51 (49.0) | 49 (45.8) | 34 (38.2) | 134 (44.7) | |
| More than 1 hr/d | 18 (17.3) | 24 (22.4) | 22 (24.7) | 64 (21.3) |
Table 2.
Coffee consumption behaviors of coffee consumers during last one year
| Variables | LCG (n = 107) | HCG (n = 89) | Total (n = 196) | Significance1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Frequency of taking coffee | ||||
| 1 ∼ 2 times/wk | 542) (50.5)3) | 16 (18.0) | 70 (35.7) | 42.057∗∗∗ |
| 3 ∼ 4 times/wk | 38 (35.5) | 28 (31.5) | 66 (33.7) | |
| 5 ∼ 6 times/wk | 10 (9.3) | 14 (15.7) | 24 (12.2) | |
| 1 time/d | 5 (4.7) | 17 (19.1) | 22 (11.2) | |
| More than 2 times/d | 0 (0.0) | 14 (15.7) | 14 (7.2) | |
| Types of mainly taking coffee | ||||
| Instant coffee of coffee mix | 17 (15.9) | 11 (12.4) | 28 (14.3) | 14.041∗ |
| Instant coffee contained only coffee | 16 (15.0) | 8 (9.0) | 24 (12.2) | |
| Can coffee | 16 (15.0) | 5 (5.6) | 21 (10.7) | |
| Black coffee extract of coffee bean | 27 (25.2) | 38 (42.7) | 65 (33.1) | |
| Coffee extract of coffee bean with sugar | 6 (5.6) | 2 (2.2) | 8 (4.1) | |
| Coffee extract of coffee bean with milk | 10 (9.3) | 15 (16.9) | 25 (12.8) | |
| Coffee extract of coffee bean with sugar and milk | 15 (14.0) | 10 (11.2) | 25 (12.8) | |
| Main time of taking coffee | ||||
| Before 10 hr | 2 (1.9) | 8 (9.0) | 10 (5.1) | 5.763NS |
| 10 ∼ 12 hr | 9 (8.4) | 6 (6.7) | 15 (7.7) | |
| 12 ∼ 18 hr | 72 (67.3) | 60 (67.4) | 132 (67.3) | |
| 18 ∼ 24 hr | 24 (22.4) | 15 (16.9) | 39 (19.9) | |
| Main place of taking coffee | ||||
| Home | 16 (15.0) | 16 (18.2) | 32 (16.4) | 2.566NS |
| Cafe | 61 (57.0) | 55 (62.5) | 116 (59.5) | |
| Convenience store | 12 (11.2) | 5 (5.7) | 17 (8.7) | |
| Bakery or etc. | 18 (16.8) | 12 (13.6) | 30 (15.4) | |
| Main reasons for taking coffee | ||||
| Habitually | 9 (8.4) | 18 (20.2) | 27 (13.8) | 8.839NS |
| For a refreshment | 16 (15.0) | 8 (9.0) | 24 (12.2) | |
| To wake up | 38 (35.5) | 25 (28.1) | 63 (32.1) | |
| To relieve fatigue | 11 (10.3) | 12 (13.5) | 23 (11.7) | |
| Because like aroma and taste of coffee | 21 (19.6) | 20 (22.5) | 41 (20.9) | |
| To promote digestion, relieve stress or etc | 12 (11.2) | 6 (6.7) | 18 (9.2) | |
| Considering factors of choosing coffee | ||||
| Taste | 54 (50.5) | 43 (48.3) | 97 (49.5) | 5.306NS |
| Aroma | 11 (10.3) | 7 (7.9) | 18 (9.2) | |
| Packing container or brand | 4 (3.7) | 5 (5.6) | 9 (4.6) | |
| Price | 35 (32.7) | 25 (28.1) | 60 (30.6) | |
| Health such as sugar free, fat free or caffeine free | 3 (2.8) | 9 (10.1) | 12 (6.1) |
Table 3.
Consumption behaviors of coffee and accompanying snacks of coffee consumers
| Variables | LCG | HCG | Total | Significance1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Degree of energy consideration of coffee | ||||
| Choose unconditionally low energy | 72) (6.5)3) | 7 (7.9) | 14 (7.1) | 2.282NS |
| Choose low energy among the frequent coffee | 6 (5.6) | 10 (11.2) | 16 (8.2) | |
| Choose favorite coffee regardless of energy | 94 (87.9) | 72 (80.9) | 166 (84.7) | |
| Frequency of eating both coffee and accompanying snacks for snacks during last 1 year | ||||
| Rarely | 65 (60.7) | 56 (62.9) | 121 (61.7) | 4.389NS |
| 1 ∼ 2 times/week | 39 (36.4) | 25 (28.1) | 64 (32.7) | |
| More than 3 ∼ 4 times/week | 3 (2.8) | 8 (9.0) | 11 (5.6) | |
| Frequency of eating accompanying snacks instead of meal during | ||||
| last 1 year | ||||
| Rarely | 89 (83.2) | 67 (75.3) | 156 (79.6) | 7.632∗ |
| 1 ∼ 2 times/week | 18 (16.8) | 16 (18.0) | 34 (17.3) | |
| More than 3 ∼ 4 times/week | 0 (0.0) | 6 (6.7) | 6 (3.1) | |
| Total | 107 (54.6)3) | 89 (45.4) | 196 (100.0) | |
| Type of accompanying snacks eaten instead of meal | ||||
| Bread | 10 (55.6) | 12 (54.5) | 22 (55.0) | 0.750NS |
| Cake | 4 (22.2) | 3 (13.6) | 7 (17.5) | |
| Cookie | 4 (22.2) | 7 (31.8) | 11 (27.5) | |
| Degree of energy consideration of accompanying snacks eaten instead of meal | ||||
| Choose unconditionally low energy | 0 (0.0) | 3 (13.6) | 3 (7.5) | 3.082NS |
| Choose low energy among the frequent accompanying snacks | 2 (11.1) | 1 (4.5) | 3 (7.5) | |
| Choose favorite regardless of energy | 16 (88.9) | 18 (81.8) | 34 (85.0) | |
| Total | 18 (45.0)4) | 22 (55.0) | 40 (100.0) |
Table 4.
Coffee intake and dietary behaviors during last one year
| Variables | NCG (n = 104) | LCG (n = 107) | HCG (n = 89) | Total (n = 300) | Significance1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Frequency of eating breakfast | |||||
| Almost never | 332) (31.7)3) | 33 (30.8) | 33 (37.1) | 99 (33.0) | 13.966NS |
| 1 day/wk | 9 (8.7) | 17 (15.9) | 10 (11.2) | 36 (12.0) | |
| 2 days/wk | 10 (9.6) | 12 (11.2) | 14 (15.7) | 36 (12.0) | |
| 3 days/wk | 15 (14.4) | 21 (19.6) | 7 (7.9) | 43 (14.3) | |
| 4 days/wk | 10 (9.6) | 5 (4.7) | 8 (9.0) | 23 (7.7) | |
| 5 days/wk | 11 (10.6) | 6 (5.6) | 8 (9.0) | 25 (8.3) | |
| More than 6 days/wk | 16 (15.4) | 13 (12.2) | 9 (10.1) | 38 (12.7) | |
| Frequency of eating vegetable dish at | |||||
| least 3 times a day except Kimchi | |||||
| Almost never | 10 (9.6) | 5 (4.7) | 5 (5.6) | 20 (6.7) | 19.815∗ |
| 1 ∼ 2 times/wk | 32 (30.8) | 17 (15.9) | 30 (33.7) | 79 (26.3) | |
| 3 ∼ 4 times/wk | 28 (26.9) | 36 (33.6) | 31 (34.8) | 95 (31.7) | |
| 5 ∼ 6 times/wk | 12 (11.6) | 22 (20.6) | 11 (12.4) | 45 (15.0) | |
| 1 time/d | 7 (6.7) | 12 (11.2) | 2 (2.3) | 21 (7.0) | |
| More than 2 times/d | 15 (14.4) | 15 (14.0) | 10 (11.2) | 40 (13.3) | |
| Frequency of eating fruit | |||||
| Almost never | 15 (14.4) | 17 (15.9) | 27 (30.3) | 59 (19.7) | 10.146NS |
| 1 ∼ 2 times/wk | 51 (49.0) | 56 (52.3) | 40 (45.0) | 147 (49.0) | |
| 3 ∼ 4 times/wk | 30 (28.9) | 26 (24.3) | 17 (19.1) | 73 (24.3) | |
| More than 5 ∼ 6 times/wk | 8 (7.7) | 8 (7.5) | 5 (5.6) | 21 (7.0) | |
| Frequency of eating fast foods | |||||
| Almost never | 12 (11.5) | 2 (1.9) | 11 (12.3) | 25 (8.3) | 12.856∗ |
| 1 ∼ 2 times/wk | 61 (58.7) | 65 (60.8) | 47 (52.8) | 173 (57.7) | |
| 3 ∼ 4 times/wk | 29 (27.9) | 33 (30.8) | 24 (27.0) | 86 (28.7) | |
| More than 5 ∼ 6 times/wk | 2 (1.9) | 7 (6.5) | 7 (7.9) | 16 (5.3) |
Table 5.
Coffee intake and beverage drinking during last one year
| Variables | NCG (n = 104) | LCG (n = 107) | HCG (n = 89) | Total (n = 300) | Significance1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Frequency of drinking carbonated beverage | |||||
| Almost never | 362) (34.6)3) | 20 (18.7) | 13 (14.6) | 69 (23.0) | 23.414∗∗ |
| 1 ∼ 2 times/wk | 50 (48.1) | 47 (43.9) | 43 (48.3) | 140 (46.7) | |
| 3 ∼ 4 times/wk | 12 (11.5) | 23 (21.5) | 26 (29.2) | 61 (20.3) | |
| More than 5 ∼ 6 times/wk | 6 (5.8) | 17 (15.9) | 7 (7.9) | 30 (10.0) | |
| Frequency of drinking sweet beverage | |||||
| Almost never | 12 (11.5) | 13 (12.1) | 26 (29.2) | 51 (17.0) | 23.060∗∗ |
| 1 ∼ 2 times/wk | 53 (51.0) | 39 (36.4) | 37 (41.6) | 129 (43.0) | |
| 3 ∼ 4 times/wk | 27 (26.0) | 31 (29.0) | 13 (14.6) | 71 (23.7) | |
| 5 ∼ 6 times/wk | 8 (7.7) | 16 (15.0) | 7 (7.9) | 31 (10.3) | |
| More than I time/d | 4 (3.8) | 8 (7.5) | 6 (6.7) | 18 (6.0) | |
| Frequency of drinking one cup of milk a day | |||||
| Almost never | 32 (30.7) | 31 (29.0) | 28 (31.4) | 91 (30.3) | 15.366NS |
| 1 ∼ 2 times/wk | 39 (37.5) | 41 (38.3) | 24 (27.0) | 104 (34.7) | |
| 3 ∼ 4 times/wk | 21 (20.2) | 30 (28.0) | 20 (22.5) | 71 (23.7) | |
| 5 ∼ 6 times/wk | 6 (5.8) | 5 (4.7) | 8 (9.0) | 19 (6.3) | |
| More than 1 time/d | 6 (5.8) | 0 (0.0) | 9 (10.1) | 15 (5.0) | |
| Frequency of drinking alcohol | |||||
| Almost never | 36 (34.6) | 26 (24.3) | 23 (25.9) | 85 (28.3) | 20.592∗∗ |
| 1 ∼ 2 days/month | 28 (26.9) | 12 (11.2) | 23 (25.9) | 63 (21.0) | |
| 3–5 days/month | 18 (17.3) | 30 (28.0) | 14 (15.7) | 62 (20.7) | |
| 6 ∼ 9 days/month | 14 (13.5) | 19 (17.8) | 18 (20.2) | 51 (17.0) | |
| More than 10 days/month | 8 (7.7) | 20 (18.7) | 11 (12.3) | 39 (13.0) |
Table 6.
Daily dietary nutrient intakes of total subjects including males and females according to daily coffee intake amount
| Nutrient | KDRI | NCG (n = 104) | LCG (n = 107) | HCG (n = 89) | Total (n = 300) | Significance1) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Males | Females | ||||||
| Energy eaten from coffee per day | – | – | 0.00 ± 0.002)b3) | 0.88 ± 5.62b | 7.07 ± 16.93a | 3.51 ± 12.60 | 6.106∗∗ |
| Ratio of energy eaten from coffee of dietary energy intake (%) | – | – | 0.00 ± 0.0b | 0.07 ± 0.31b | 0.86 ± 1.26a | 0.36 ± 0.94 | 10.024∗∗∗ |
| Energy (kcal/d) | 2,6004)/-5) | 2,100/- | 1,529.2 ± 551.6 | 1,671.2 ± 637.1 | 1,675.7 ± 649.3 | 1,623.3 ± 614.4 | 1.880NS |
| Protein (g/d) | 65/506) | 55/45 | 56.7 ± 22.5b | 66.9 ± 30.7a | 65.2 ± 29.8a | 62.9 ± 28.1 | 4.017∗ |
| Vitamin A (μg RAE/d) | 800/570 | 650/460 | 588.8 ± 316.3b | 646.0 ± 392.8ab | 739.7 ± 451.8a | 653.9 ± 391.1 | 3.669∗ |
| Vitamin D (μg/d) | 10/- | 10/- | 2.41 ± 2.73 | 2.79 ± 3.18 | 3.32 ± 3.43 | 2.81 ± 3.12 | 2.083NS |
| Vitamin C (mg/d) | 100/75 | 100/75 | 57.3 ± 39.0 | 66.1 ± 38.9 | 70.0 ± 42.1 | 64.2 ± 40.1 | 2.609NS |
| Vitamin B1 (mg/d) | 1.2/1.0 | 1.1/0.9 | 1.11 ± 0.49 | 1.18 ± 0.53 | 1.17 ± 0.56 | 1.15 ± 0.52 | 0.558NS |
| Vitamin B2 (mg/d) | 1.5/1.3 | 1.2/1.0 | 1.14 ± 1.20 | 1.08 ± 0.48 | 1.16 ± 0.57 | 1.12 ± 0.82 | 0.257NS |
| Niacin (mg NE/d) | 16/12 | 14/11 | 12.1 ± 5.3b | 14.7 ± 6.9a | 14.5 ± 6.7a | 13.8 ± 6.4 | 5.202∗∗ |
| Folic acid (μg DFE/d) | 400/320 | 400/320 | 319.0 ± 147.8 | 362.3 ± 182.2 | 362.6 ± 197.7 | 347.3 ± 176.7 | 2.059NS |
| Ca (mg/d) | 800/650 | 700/530 | 360.7 ± 205.3 | 402.5 ± 244.6 | 415.2 ± 231.2 | 391.7 ± 228.0 | 1.562NS |
| P (mg/d) | 700/580 | 700/580 | 805.3 ± 343.7 | 902.3 ± 424.3 | 912.9 ± 422.0 | 871.8 ± 399.1 | 2.246NS |
| Fe (mg/d) | 10/8 | 14/11 | 11.5 ± 6.7 | 11.9 ± 5.7 | 12.0 ± 6.2 | 11.8 ± 6.1 | 0.132NS |
| Zn (mg/d) | 10/8 | 8/7 | 7.82 ± 3.20 | 8.66 ± 3.85 | 8.64 ± 4.00 | 8.36 ± 3.69 | 1.699NS |
NCG; non coffee group, LCG; low coffee group, HCG; high coffee group 1) A significant difference was determined by ANOVA test according to coffee intake amount.
4) EER (estimated energy requirement), RNI (recommended nutrient intake) or AI (adequate intake) according to kind of nutrient referring to males and females of 19 ∼ 29 yr of 2015 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans.22
5) Estimated average requirement (EAR) of males and females of 19 ∼ 29 yr of 2015 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans.22
Table 7.
Ratio of dietary nutrient intakes of reference intake for total subjects including males and females accroding to daily coffee intake amount
| Nutrient | KDRI | NCG (n = 104) | LCG (n = 107) | HCG (n = 89) | Total (n = 300) | Significance1) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Males | Females | ||||||
| Energy (kcal/d) | 2,6002)/-3) | 2,100/- | 66.6 ± 24.04) | 70.2 ± 24.8 | 71.7 ± 26.4 | 69.4 ± 25.0 | 1.078NS |
| Protein (g/d) | 65/505) | 55/45 | 95.6 ± 36.2b6) | 109.8 ± 47.5a | 108.7 ± 47.6a | 104.6 ± 44.3 | 3.298∗ |
| Vitamin A (μg RAE/d) | 800/570 | 650/460 | 83.1 ± 45.1b | 88.5 ± 52.9ab | 102.0 ± 59.6a | 90.7 ± 52.9 | 3.2494∗ |
| Vitamin D (μg/d) | 10/- | 10/- | 24.1 ± 27.3 | 27.9 ± 31.8 | 33.2 ± 34.3 | 28.1 ± 31.2 | 2.083NS |
| Vitamin C (mg/d) | 100/75 | 100/75 | 57.3 ± 39.0 | 66.1 ± 38.9 | 70.0 ± 42.1 | 64.2 ± 40.1 | 2.609NS |
| Vitamin B1 (mg/d) | 1.2/1.0 | 1.1/0.9 | 96.8 ± 41.6 | 102.0 ± 44.9 | 101.2 ± 46.5 | 99.9 ± 44.2 | 0.418NS |
| Vitamin B2 (mg/d) | 1.5/1.3 | 1.2/1.0 | 87.2 ± 99.5 | 79.3 ± 34.5 | 86.8 ± 41.9 | 84.3 ± 66.1 | 0.471NS |
| Niacin (mg NE/d) | 16/12 | 14/11 | 81.7 ± 35.1b | 97.0 ± 43.7a | 96.4 ± 43.1a | 91.5 ± 41.3 | 4.649∗ |
| Folic acid (μg DFE/d) | 400/320 | 400/320 | 79.8 ± 37.0 | 90.6 ± 45.3 | 90.6 ± 49.4 | 86.8 ± 44.1 | 2.074NS |
| Ca (mg/d) | 800/650 | 700/530 | 48.6 ± 27.5 | 53.1 ± 31.7 | 55.4 ± 30.2 | 52.2 ± 29.9 | 1.332NS |
| P (mg/d) | 700/580 | 700/580 | 115.0 ± 49.1 | 128.9 ± 60.6 | 130.4 ± 60.3 | 124.5 ± 57.0 | 2.246NS |
| Fe (mg/d) | 10/8 | 14/11 | 96.9 ± 56.1 | 105.7 ± 58.4 | 104.8 ± 64.4 | 102.4 ± 59.4 | 0.685NS |
| Zn (mg/d) | 10/8 | 8/7 | 88.6 ± 34.5 | 94.7 ± 38.6 | 96.2 ± 41.6 | 93.0 ± 38.2 | 1.082NS |
NCG; non coffee group, LCG; low coffee group, HCG; high coffee group 1) A significant difference was determined by ANOVA test according to coffee intake amount.
2) EER (estimated energy requirement), RNI (recommended nutrient intake) or AI (adequate intake) according to kind of nutrient referring to males and females of 19 ∼ 29 yr of 2015 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans.22
3) Estimated average requirement (EAR) is not determined in 2015 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans.22
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