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Yeon and Bae: 3-in-1 coffee consumption is associated with metabolic factors in adults: Based on 2012∼2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Research Article

J Nutr Health 2017;50(3):257-269.

Published online: 20 January 2017

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4163/jnh.2017.50.3.257

3-in-1 coffee consumption is associated with metabolic factors in adults: Based on 2012∼2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Jee-Young Yeon1, Yun-Jung Bae†

1Department of Food and Nutrition, Seowon University, Chongju 28674, Korea

2Division of Food Science and Culinary Arts, Shinhan University, Uijeongbu 11644, Korea

†To whom correspondence should be addressed. tel: +82-31-870-3572, E-mail: byj@shinhan.ac.kr

Received 24 April 2017       Revised 4 May 2017       Accepted 7 June 2017

Copyright © 2017 The Korean Nutrition Society

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Purpose

This study was conducted to evaluate the risk of metabolic factors in adults consuming 3-in-1 coffee from the 2012∼2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). Methods: A total of 5,872 subjects (male = 2,253, female = 3,619) aged 19∼64 yrs were presented with food frequency questionnaires, and they were classified according to coffee consumption level and types of coffee consumed (black coffee, ≤1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee, > 1 and ≤2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee, > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee). Analysis was conducted by gender for age-stratified groups: 19∼39 (male = 968 and female = 1,285) and 40∼64 (male = 1,468, female = 2,151) yrs old. Results: Black coffee consumption was associated with a significantly higher education level and household income compared to 3-in-1 coffee consumption in both males and females. The > 2 times/day group had significantly more smokers compared to other patterns of coffee consumption in both males and females. In the 40∼64 yrs age group, males and females in the > 2 times/ day group had significantly lower density of micronutrients such as fiber, niacin, vitamin C, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium compared with black coffee consumption. In the 40∼64 yrs age group, males (OR: 2.03, 95% CI: 1.13∼3.64) in the > 2 times/day group were at a higher risk of metabolic syndrome compared with black coffee consumption after multivariable adjustment. Conclusion: We found that frequency of 3-in-1 coffee consumption may be associated with prevalence of metabolic syndrome in males aged 40∼64 yrs.

Keywords: 3-in 1 coffee, black coffee, consumption, metabolic factors, adults

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Table 1.
General characteristics of subjects according to the frequency of coffee consumption in male
  19 ∼ 39 age group
 40 ∼ 64 age group
  Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value
Subjects (n = 2,253) 186 (19.93)1) 388 (41.08) 167 (16.50) 227 (22.49) – 116 (9.36) 369 (28.93) 288 (21.38) 512 (40.34) –
Age (yrs) 27.59 ± 0.432) § 27.85 ± 0.30 30.90 ± 0.50 32.64 ± 0.38 < 0.0001 50.54 ± 0.63 50.78 ± 0.35 50.87 ± 0.46 49.58 ± 0.28 0.0112
Body mass index (kg/m2) 24.36 ± 0.31 24.24 ± 0.20 24.13 ± 0.28 23.58 ± 0.25 0.1307 24.19 ± 0.27 24.25 ± 0.17 24.25 ± 0.19 24.04 ± 0.13 0.7372
Marital status                    
Single 3)68.973) 69.40 49.30 35.97 < 0.0001 1.49 5.66 1.99 5.05 0.0463
Married 31.03 30.60 50.70 64.03   98.51 94.34 98.01 94.95  
Education level                    
Middle school or less 1.43 0.93 0.89 3.52 0.0401 7.14 23.58 18.24 23.69 < 0.0001
High school 50.75 53.59 39.95 46.78   24.35 33.86 39.01 39.43  
College or more 47.82 45.47 59.15 49.70   68.51 42.56 42.76 36.88  
Household income                    
Low 11.22 5.36 8.10 4.21 0.0123 3.29 9.99 6.88 5.76 0.0057
Lower middle 18.77 23.07 23.24 28.74   22.74 19.75 18.44 27.18  
Upper middle 30.80 33.55 38.96 39.43   22.18 34.70 34.91 32.39  
High 39.21 38.02 29.71 27.62   51.79 35.55 39.77 34.67  
Smoking status                    
Never 41.74 39.76 39.65 13.28 < 0.0001 19.32 21.91 17.68 11.79 < 0.0001
Former 26.29 24.70 17.10 16.81   56.77 42.59 46.41 28.27  
Current 31.97 35.54 43.25 69.91   23.91 35.50 35.91 59.94  
Alcohol consumption                    
None 8.63 5.55 9.53 8.13 0.5804 11.30 14.04 13.95 17.95 0.0364
≤ 1/mo 27.67 22.84 28.18 23.47   14.80 20.11 14.66 21.64  
2 ∼ 4/mo 36.50 43.32 38.38 39.78   36.06 30.67 33.26 27.32  
2 ∼ 3/wk 23.03 22.32 21.48 22.02   31.67 20.88 22.85 22.99  
≥ 4/wk 4.17 5.98 2.43 6.61   6.17 14.30 15.29 10.10  
Physical activity                    
Walking 58.67 52.61 48.91 41.21 0.0059 50.37 35.00 39.25 37.69 0.0567
Moderate 39.24 42.49 41.57 31.01 0.0590 33.11 26.30 21.44 27.17 0.1812
Vigorous 25.62 24.87 24.04 18.51 0.3071 13.94 16.09 16.07 14.99 0.9415

1) N (%)

2) Mean ± SE

3) % BMI variable has been age-adjusted. Weighted column percentage is presented and may not total 100% because of rounding. p < 0.05 Significance between black coffee and > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test § p < 0.05 Significance between black coffee and > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test

Table 2.
General characteristics of subjects according to the frequency of coffee consumption in female
19 ∼ 39 age group 40 ∼ 64 age group
  Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value
Subjects (n = 3,619) 389 (28.26)1) 600 (40.45) 304 (19.50) 175 (11.79) – 406 (19.23) 871 (39.00) 520 (24.39) 354 (17.38) –
Age (yrs) 28.40 ± 0.342)∗ § 29.85 ± 0.29 31.46 ± 0.38 31.81 ± 0.48 < 0.0001 48.93 ± 0.35∗ 51.00 ± 0.27 49.53 ± 0.34 48.66 ± 0.36 < 0.0001
Body mass index (kg/m2) 22.03 ± 0.16 22.00 ± 0.17 22.13 ± 0.27 22.33 ± 0.29 0.7704 23.27 ± 0.16 23.45 ± 0.18 23.36 ± 0.15 23.76 ± 0.23 0.3340
Marital status                    
Single 3)57.483) 40.56 41.22 34.84 < 0.0001 2.22 1.99 1.51 1.59 0.8659
Married 42.52 59.44 58.78 65.16   97.78 98.01 98.49 98.41  
Education level                    
Middle school or less 0.43 1.94 3.47 3.83 0.0002 18.60 27.46 28.24 25.84 0.0143
High school 37.99 36.72 27.84 49.49   45.58 43.88 42.52 49.24  
College or more 61.58 61.34 68.69 46.68   35.82 28.66 29.25 24.92  
Household income                    
Low 6.44 5.74 3.96 7.43 0.3724 5.92 10.51 9.42 11.40 0.0483
Lower middle 20.47 28.56 28.65 25.40   18.29 24.20 24.65 24.82  
Upper middle 37.57 34.05 37.34 34.60   29.79 28.86 28.85 29.53  
High 35.52 31.66 30.05 32.58   46.01 36.43 37.09 34.25  
Smoking status                    
Never 82.76 84.32 86.20 70.63 0.0016 92.48 95.12 93.27 85.28 < 0.0001
Former 8.43 9.02 6.78 12.42   4.34 3.14 2.88 4.67  
Current 8.81 6.66 7.02 16.96   3.18 1.75 3.85 10.05  
Alcohol consumption                    
None 11.63 20.67 14.98 13.12 0.0023 25.46 33.55 26.21 27.06 0.0152
≤ 1/mo 35.88 38.78 42.56 44.08   41.17 43.35 44.86 39.57  
2∼4/mo 33.83 29.30 29.19 24.93   21.06 15.87 18.35 19.69  
2∼3/wk 15.46 10.30 12.14 14.31   10.58 6.14 8.21 11.52  
≥ 4/wk 3.20 0.95 1.13 3.55   1.73 1.09 2.38 2.17  
Physical activity                    
Walking 53.14 46.73 42.12 35.95 0.0029 45.10 42.93 41.50 33.79 0.0291
Moderate 40.12 33.84 31.82 29.85 0.0943 34.12 26.47 27.86 25.37 0.0568
Vigorous 13.94 7.22 9.39 7.25 0.0092 15.04 9.83 9.74 9.95 0.0662

1) N (%)

2) Mean ± SE

3) % BMI variable has been age-adjusted. Weighted column percentage is presented and may not total 100% because of rounding.

∗ p < 0.05 Significance between black coffee and ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test p < 0.05 Significance between black coffee and > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test §p < 0.05 Significance between black coffee and > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test

Table 3.
Metabolic bio-markers of subjects according to the frequency of coffee consumption
19 ∼ 39 age group 40 ∼ 64 age group
  Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value
Male                    
Metabolic syndrome2) (%) 10.23 11.97 14.23 10.94 0.6945 29.16 26.59 27.16 21.56 0.2342
Waist circumference (cm) 83.34 ± 0.781) 83.50 ± 0.55 82.64 ± 0.75 81.41 ± 0.72 0.1264 85.16 ± 0.74 85.06 ± 0.45 84.95 ± 0.51 84.13 ± 0.37 0.3224
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 113.20 ± 0.69 113.42 ± 0.52 113.58 ± 0.74 112.95 ± 0.75 0.9265 113.94 ± 1.21 116.41 ± 0.68‡ 114.77 ± 0.69 114.02 ± 0.50 0.0404
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 74.54 ± 0.69 74.81 ± 0.40 75.09 ± 0.58 74.01 ± 0.62 0.5566 77.67 ± 0.98 77.83 ± 0.44 77.72 ± 0.57 76.75 ± 0.37 0.2334
Triglyceride (mg/dL) 146.69 ± 8.69 144.76 ± 6.93 126.71 ± 6.87 130.03 ± 8.20 0.2457 128.78 ± 11.21 111.02 ± 2.50 111.69 ± 3.35 117.07 ± 4.60 0.3082
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) 50.16 ± 0.84 49.34 ± 0.59 47.74 ± 0.76 49.66 ± 0.73 0.1104 46.77 ± 0.86 46.91 ± 0.61 47.21 ± 0.77 46.03 ± 0.50 0.5267
Fast blood glucose (mg/dL) 92.19 ± 0.62 91.87 ± 0.59 93.24 ± 1.33 92.19 ± 0.95 0.8089 103.88 ± 2.46 104.98 ± 1.42 103.60 ± 1.47 102.59 ± 1.05 0.0629
Female                    
Metabolic syndrome (%) 4.08 6.00 3.97 5.85 0.5205 14.44 16.10 14.45 16.46 0.8041
Waist circumference (cm) 73.59 ± 0.44 73.95 ± 0.42 73.69 ± 0.62 75.29 ± 0.86 0.3255 77.10 ± 0.40 78.04 ± 0.41 77.93 ± 0.40 78.80 ± 0.64 0.1096
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 103.53 ± 0.47 104.79 ± 0.44 104.73 ± 0.63 104.93 ± 0.76 0.1543 111.59 ± 0.70 111.34 ± 0.45 110.43 ± 0.58 111.80 ± 0.79 0.4622
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 69.02 ± 0.43 69.62 ± 0.35 69.24 ± 0.51 68.72 ± 0.60 0.5460 73.33 ± 0.49 72.53 ± 0.29 72.69 ± 0.38 73.05 ± 0.53 0.5282
Triglyceride (mg/dL) 90.46 ± 4.77 86.58 ± 2.75 85.88 ± 3.27 85.00 ± 3.90 0.8541 128.00 ± 11.21 110.24 ± 2.51 110.91 ± 3.32 116.29 ± 4.58 0.3082
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) 58.10 ± 0.70 57.54 ± 0.52 55.76 ± 0.69 57.04 ± 1.11 0.0818 54.95 ± 0.69 54.27 ± 0.45 54.20 ± 0.59 54.83 ± 0.86 0.8021
Fast blood glucose (mg/dL) 89.32 ± 0.58 90.69 ± 0.59 91.95 ± 1.79 92.68 ± 1.98 0.1260 98.12 ± 1.45 96.97 ± 0.92 95.19 ± 0.70 95.54 ± 0.90 0.1869

1) Mean ± SE

2) Clinical criteria of metabolic syndrome was ≥ 3 components of the following: Abdominal obesity (waist ≥ 90 cm in men, ≥ 85 cm in women modified value for Korean) High blood pressure (≥ 130/85 mmHg); High Triglyceride (≥ 150 mg/dL); Reduced HDL (< 40 mg/dL in men, <50 mg/dL in women); and High glucose (≥ 100 mg/dL). All variables have been age-adjusted. ‡p < 0.05 Significance between ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee and > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test

Table 4.
Nutrient intakes of subjects according to the frequency of coffee consumption
19 ∼ 39 age group   40 ∼ 64 age group
  Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value
Male                    
Energy (kcal) 2,522.28 ± 73.181) 2,564.25 ± 49.83 2,483.24 ± 74.27 2,548.35 ± 59.81 0.8232 2,277.56 ± 76.58 § 2,324.45 ± 46.06†‡ 2,467.05 ± 53.46 2,512.65 ± 40.28 0.0022
    (/1,000 kcal)       (/1,000 kcal)    
Protein (g) 36.77 ± 0.91 36.04 ± 0.45 36.42 ± 0.88 34.21 ± 0.72 0.0893 37.34 ± 1.27 34.79 ± 0.53 34.88 ± 0.58 33.89 ± 0.48 0.0588
Fat (g) 26.73 ± 0.95 25.79 ± 0.50 24.89 ± 0.71 24.40 ± 0.59 0.1578 19.74 ± 0.74 20.04 ± 0.53 20.98 ± 0.56 20.56 ± 0.41 0.4866
Carbohydrate (g) 135.51 ± 2.87 § 139.52 ± 1.82†‡ 145.59 ± 2.37 150.03 ± 1.87 < 0.0001 152.62 ± 3.04 152.72 ± 2.00 149.99 ± 2.26 155.68 ± 1.62 0.2264
Fiber (g) 9.75 ± 0.41 9.55 ± 0.24 9.47 ± 0.40 8.79 ± 0.25 0.0885 12.67 ± 0.58 § 11.52 ± 0.36‡ 11.21 ± 0.37 10.69 ± 0.23 0.0069
Vitamin A (ugRE) 373.53 ± 50.65 338.53 ± 16.34 333.64 ± 28.08 360.71 ± 47.54 0.8623 378.09 ± 45.91 361.35 ± 29.07 385.63 ± 21.94 326.90 ± 17.48 0.2074
Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.95 ± 0.02 0.98 ± 0.01 0.94 ± 0.02 0.95 ± 0.02 0.2770 1.04 ± 0.04 0.96 ± 0.02 0.97 ± 0.02 0.99 ± 0.01 0.2305
Vitamin B2 (mg) 0.71 ± 0.03 0.69 ± 0.01 0.70 ± 0.03 0.66 ± 0.02 0.4445 0.74 ± 0.04 0.66 ± 0.01 0.67 ± 0.02 0.64 ± 0.01 0.1000
Niacin (mg) 8.87 ± 0.25 8.14 ± 0.14 8.04 ± 0.21 8.22 ± 0.24 0.0662 9.21 ± 0.35∗ § 8.08 ± 0.16 8.10 ± 0.20 7.92 ± 0.14 0.0091
Vitamin C (mg) 35.33 ± 2.81 32.16 ± 1.79 30.31 ± 2.75 32.91 ± 3.15 0.6380 56.90 ± 4.19§ 55.07 ± 3.46‡ 48.32 ± 2.99 41.62 ± 2.18 0.0006
Calcium (mg) 238.45 ± 10.50 228.13 ± 6.81 242.34 ± 11.95 220.55 ± 7.27 0.3340 272.28 ± 12.39∗§ 243.17 ± 6.15 263.24 ± 10.25# 233.64 ± 5.09 0.0109
Phosphorus (mg) 523.51 ± 11.37 512.11 ± 6.77 525.01 ± 9.68 504.15 ± 9.61 0.3943 600.41 ± 16.10∗ § 544.87 ± 7.85 553.53 ± 9.90 529.57 ± 6.16 0.0003
Sodium (mg) 1,892.01 ± 67.45 2,033.96 ± 54.80 2,005.49 ± 82.27 1,995.56 ± 55.71 0.4258 2,077.39 ± 94.41 2,014.03 ± 57.99 2,071.04 ± 71.69 2,088.14 ± 53.13 0.8133
Potassium (mg) 1,387.36 ± 39.11 1,306.18 ± 21.97 1,349.76 ± 38.81 1,303.76 ± 31.00 0.2251 1,766.10 ± 72.25∗ § 1,496.74 ± 31.50 1,493.26 ± 35.08 1,456.07 ± 23.02 0.0008
Iron (mg) 8.02 ± 0.58 7.94 ± 0.25 8.09 ± 0.39 7.90 ± 0.40 0.9848 9.75 ± 0.64 9.66 ± 1.09 8.67 ± 0.27 8.36 ± 0.23 0.1704
Female                    
Energy (kcal) 1,734.26 ± 36.68 § 1,854.92 ± 31.02 1,932.99 ± 42.93 1,968.64 ± 60.23 0.0006 1,705.45 ± 38.17 § 1,791.94 ± 28.06‡ 1,826.66 ± 28.81 1,891.76 ± 40.41 0.0060
    (/1,000 kcal)       (/1,000 kcal)    
Protein (g) 36.26 ± 0.67 34.94 ± 0.43 33.90 ± 0.60 34.88 ± 0.85 0.0912 36.38 ± 0.58 § 35.07 ± 0.39†‡ 33.36 ± 0.47 33.10 ± 0.56 < 0.0001
Fat (g) 25.83 ± 0.57 25.43 ± 0.42 24.71 ± 0.63 25.57 ± 0.78 0.6017 21.98 ± 0.59 20.57 ± 0.35 21.11 ± 0.46 21.11 ± 0.49 0.1871
Carbohydrate (g) 146.50 ± 1.87 151.10 ± 1.29 153.71 ± 2.02 150.58 ± 2.28 0.0752 159.62 ± 1.76∗ § 165.19 ± 1.11 164.98 ± 1.44 164.67 ± 1.61 0.0436
Fiber (g) 10.94 ± 0.28 10.26 ± 0.19 10.01 ± 0.27 10.13 ± 0.44 0.0881 14.56 ± 0.34 § 13.94 ± 0.25†‡ 12.59 ± 0.25 12.32 ± 0.36 < 0.0001
Vitamin A (ugRE) 353.10 ± 23.00 359.22 ± 19.23 314.76 ± 16.49 333.25 ± 26.27 0.3010 490.24 ± 29.95 § 433.25 ± 17.96 382.82 ± 22.94 392.12 ± 21.75 0.0140
Vitamin B1 (mg) 0.96 ± 0.02 0.99 ± 0.01 0.97 ± 0.02 0.93 ± 0.03 0.1515 1.12 ± 0.02∗ § 1.03 ± 0.01‡ 1.00 ± 0.01 0.97 ± 0.02 < 0.0001
Vitamin B2 (mg) 0.73 ± 0.12 0.72 ± 0.01 0.67 ± 0.02 0.71 ± 0.03 0.0437 0.77 ± 0.02∗ § 0.72 ± 0.01†‡ 0.67 ± 0.02 0.67 ± 0.02 0.0003
Niacin (mg) 9.01 ± 0.21∗ § 7.99 ± 0.12 7.81 ± 0.18 8.32 ± 0.26 0.0001 9.16 ± 0.18∗ § 8.54 ± 0.12† 8.18 ± 0.13 8.44 ± 0.20 0.0002
Vitamin C (mg) 55.32 ± 4.45 49.42 ± 2.47 42.63 ± 3.77 49.99 ± 8.17 0.2030 76.01 ± 5.03 § 71.61 ± 2.94‡ 63.76 ± 3.46 61.09 ± 4.25 0.0357
Calcium (mg) 259.13 ± 7.46 242.60 ± 5.61 234.88 ± 6.85 235.57 ± 10.40 0.1055 295.87 ± 9.17∗ § 275.11 ± 5.30† 249.35 ± 5.26 266.56 ± 11.09 < 0.0001
Phosphorus (mg) 550.41 ± 9.51 526.91 ± 5.75 518.08 ± 8.24 525.90 ± 11.48 0.0769 599.75 ± 10.18 § 577.07 ± 5.79†‡ 544.83 ± 7.25 542.53 ± 8.57 < 0.0001
Sodium (mg) 1,879.75 ± 49.22 1,835.84 ± 36.21 1,794.86 ± 50.35 1,961.46 ± 84.54 0.3082 2,117.45 ± 71.75 2,003.45 ± 44.05 1,947.44 ± 48.54 1,982.20 ± 57.82 0.2836
Potassium (mg) 1,538.61 ± 36.04 1,432.36 ± 22.87 1,444.62 ± 43.45 1,437.92 ± 48.64 0.1065 1,859.58 ± 36.73∗ § 1,768.82 ± 25.81†‡ 1,650.98 ± 29.38 1,656.73 ± 35.38 < 0.0001
Iron (mg) 8.04 ± 0.21 7.85 ± 0.15 7.73 ± 0.24 7.61 ± 0.27 0.6022 10.58 ± 0.77 § 9.36 ± 0.14† 8.69 ± 0.17 8.95 ± 0.23 0.0043

1) Mean ± SE All nutrients have been age-adjusted.

∗ p < 0.05 Significance between black coffee and ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test p < 0.05 Significance between black coffee and > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test §p < 0.05 Significance between black coffee and > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test †p < 0.05 Significance between ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee and > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test ‡p < 0.05 Significance between ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee and > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test #p < 0.05 Significance between > 1 and ≤ 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee and >2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee at α = 0.05 by Tukey-Kramer test

Table 5.
ORs (95% CIs) of metabolic bio-markers risk according to the frequency of coffee consumption
19 ∼ 39 age group 40 ∼ 64 age group
Male Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/ day of 3-in-1 coffee >2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value Black coffee ≤ 1 time/day of 3-in-1 coffee > 1 and ≤ 2 times/ day of 3-in-1 coffee > 2 times/day of 3-in-1 coffee p value
Male                    
Metabolic syndrome∗                    
Model 1 1.00 0.84 (0.46, 1.52) 0.69 (0.36, 1.31) 0.93 (0.49, 1.76) 0.6809 1.00 1.14 (0.66, 1.95) 1.10 (0.63, 1.94) 1.50 (0.88, 2.54) 0.2175
Model 2 1.00 0.84 (0.38, 1.89) 0.78 (0.34, 1.78) 1.20 (0.46, 3.11) 0.7490 1.00 1.36 (0.73, 2.53) 1.27 (0.69, 2.35) 2.03 (1.13, 3.64) 0.0387
Abdominal obesity                    
Model 1 1.00 1.05 (0.68, 1.63) 0.97 (0.57, 1.65) 0.96 (0.59, 1.56) 0.9735 1.00 0.87 (0.51, 1.48) 0.88 (0.51, 1.53) 1.06 (0.62, 1.81) 0.6196
Model 2 1.00 1.69 (0.71, 4.02) 1.20 (0.41, 3.51) 0.65 (0.23, 1.86) 0.2120 1.00 0.79 (0.34, 1.82) 0.92 (0.36, 2.32) 1.28 (0.55, 2.97) 0.2483
High BP                    
Model 1 1.00 1.18 (0.69, 2.01) 1.01 (0.55, 1.88) 0.87 (0.48, 1.56) 0.6881 1.00 0.59 (0.33, 1.05) 0.70 (0.38, 1.27) 1.15 (0.64, 2.09) 0.0020
Model 2 1.00 1.29 (0.74, 2.26) 1.11 (0.56, 2.21) 1.03 (0.52, 2.02) 0.7916 1.00 0.61 (0.34, 1.11) 0.73 (0.40, 1.34) 1.02 (0.54, 1.91) 0.0590
High TG                    
Model 1 1.00 1.20 (0.81, 1.78) 0.96 (0.59, 1.54) 0.99 (0.64, 1.53) 0.5747 1.00 0.97 (0.59, 1.61) 1.10 (0.67, 1.83) 1.16 (0.70, 1.90) 0.7079
Model 2 1.00 1.31 (0.83, 2.05) 1.31 (0.76, 2.26) 1.65 (0.95, 2.89) 0.3704 1.00 1.11 (0.64, 1.93) 1.28 (0.76, 2.17) 1.49 (0.88, 2.51) 0.2570
Low HDL-cholesterol                    
Model 1 1.00 0.88 (0.51, 1.51) 0.63 (0.36, 1.10) 0.78 (0.44, 1.36) 0.3889 1.00 1.06 (0.63, 1.79) 0.75 (0.44, 1.28) 0.75 (0.45, 1.24) 0.1947
Model 2 1.00 0.91 (0.49, 1.71) 0.71 (0.37, 1.35) 0.94 (0.48, 1.83) 0.6731 1.00 1.17 (0.64, 2.12) 0.73 (0.40, 1.33) 0.95 (0.53, 1.70) 0.2141
High glucose                    
Model 1 1.00 0.99 (0.58, 1.67) 0.68 (0.38, 1.22) 0.71 (0.40, 1.25) 0.3711 1.00 0.84 (0.52, 1.34) 0.97 (0.60, 1.58) 0.99 (0.62, 1.58) 0.6898
Model 2 1.00 1.07 (0.61, 1.89) 0.77 (0.40, 1.45) 0.87 (0.45, 1.68) 0.6512 1.00 0.97 (0.60, 1.58) 1.10 (0.68, 1.78) 1.15 (0.71, 1.86) 0.7708
Female                    
Metabolic syndrome∗                    
Model 1 1.00 0.67 (0.35, 1.28) 1.03 (0.46, 2.32) 0.68 (0.27, 1.76) 0.5056 1.00 0.88 (0.60, 1.29) 1.00 (0.66, 1.51) 0.86 (0.56, 1.32) 0.7958
Model 2 1.00 1.40 (0.63, 3.12) 2.40 (0.92, 6.25) 2.07 (0.53, 8.17) 0.3308 1.00 1.29 (0.85, 1.98) 1.35 (0.86, 2.13) 1.24 (0.78, 2.13) 0.5680
Abdominal obesity                    
Model 1 1.00 0.77 (0.49, 1.20) 0.81 (0.49, 1.32) 0.57 (0.33, 1.00) 0.2719 1.00 0.64 (0.46, 0.89) 0.71 (0.48, 1.03) 0.67 (0.44, 1.02) 0.0645
Model 2 1.00 0.76 (0.37, 1.55) 0.83 (0.36, 1.93) 0.68 (0.25, 1.84) 0.8511 1.00 0.65 (0.69, 1.09) 0.64 (0.35, 1.16) 0.74 (0.39, 1.42) 0.3806
High BP                    
Model 1 1.00 0.49 (0.23, 1.03) 0.60 (0.28, 1.32) 1.15 (0.39, 3.40) 0.1453 1.00 1.09 (0.77, 1.56) 1.24 (0.82, 1.87) 1.07 (0.68, 1.67) 0.7736
Model 2 1.00 0.60 (0.28, 1.27) 0.89 (0.38, 2.11) 2.32 (0.72, 7.55) 0.0904 1.00 1.27 (0.88, 1.82) 1.34 (0.88, 2.02) 1.15 (0.72, 1.82) 0.5062
High TG                    
Model 1 1.00 1.14 (0.70, 1.87) 0.89 (0.52, 1.53) 0.72 (0.39, 1.34) 0.4128 1.00 1.12 (0.81, 1.54) 1.17 (0.82, 1.68) 1.19 (0.80, 1.77) 0.7979
Model 2 1.00 1.64 (0.96, 2.80) 1.23 (0.68, 2.25) 1.35 (0.68, 2.69) 0.3332 1.00 1.38 (0.99, 1.93) 1.37 (0.95, 1.97) 1.60 (1.06, 2.42) 0.1221
Low HDL-cholesterol                    
Model 1 1.00 0.90 (0.66, 1.24) 0.77 (0.53, 1.12) 0.72 (0.46, 1.13) 0.3449 1.00 0.89 (0.67, 1.17) 0.88 (0.66, 1.19) 0.91 (0.66, 1.25) 0.8307
Model 2 1.00 1.03 (0.74, 1.43) 0.89 (0.60, 1.33) 0.86 (0.53, 1.39) 0.7715 1.00 1.04 (0.78, 1.38) 0.98 (0.72, 1.32) 1.07 (0.76, 1.49) 0.9414
High glucose                    
Model 1 1.00 0.59 (0.35, 0.98) 0.57 (0.30, 1.07) 0.65 (0.31, 1.40) 0.2034 1.00 0.97 (0.72, 1.31) 1.22 (0.87, 1.70) 1.06 (0.73, 1.53) 0.4722
Model 2 1.00 0.72 (0.42, 1.21) 0.77 (0.39, 1.54) 1.07 (0.47, 2.42) 0.4924 1.00 1.18 (0.84, 1.64) 1.38 (0.97, 1.97) 1.27 (0.85, 1.89) 0.3370

1) OR (95% CI) OR: Odds ration, CI: confidence interval

∗ Clinical criteria of metabolic syndrome was ≥ 3 components of the following: Abdominal obesity (waist ≥ 90 cm in men, ≥ 85 cm in women modified value for Korean); High blood pressure (≥ 130/85 mmHg); High Triglyceride (≥ 150 mg/dL); Reduced HDL (< 40 mg/dL in men, <50 mg/dL in women); and High glucose (≥ 100 mg/dL). Model1: Unadjusted, Model2: Adjusted for age, body mass index, marital status, education level, household income, smoking, alcohol consumption, physical activity, and energy intake

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