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Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate consumption of health functional food (HFF) and dietary habits, nutrient intake, and dietary quality by HFF consumption in college students. The subjects of this study included 283 college students (179 males and 104 females) in Incheon metropolitan city. The cross-sectional study was conducted using self-reported questionnaires, including kinds of HFF consumed, motivation for purchase, reason for consumption, effect after consumption, reason for no consumption, and dietary habits. A three-day recall method was used for dietary assessment. Dietary qualities were assessed using nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR), mean adequacy ratio (MAR), and nutrient density (ND) values. The percentage of HFF consumption was 40.2% in males and 50.0% in females. The main kinds of HFF consumed by males were vitamins and minerals, red ginseng, protein, and omega-3 fatty acid, in that order. HFF consumed by females were vitamins and minerals, red ginseng, omega-3 fatty acid, and individually approved functional ingredients, in that order. The main motivation for purchase of HFF was recommendation of family and relatives (males 76.4% and females 78.8%). The main reason for consumption of HFF was health promotion (males 67.7% and females 63.5%) and the main reason for no consumption of HFF was not having a health problem (males 49.5% and females 46.2%). The dietary habit score for ‛eat the milk or dairy product everyday’ (p ＜ 0.05) in females was significantly higher in HFF consumers, compared to HFF non-consumers. In males, the ND of vitamin B1 (p ＜ 0.05) in HFF consumers was significantly higher compared to HFF non-consumers. In females, HFF consumers showed a significantly higher ND of vitamin B2 (p ＜ 0.05) and Ca (p ＜ 0.01), compared to HFF non-consumers. Regardless of HFF consumption, the NAR of vitamin C, folic acid, and Ca was less than 0.7. These results suggest the need for nutrition education for college students in order to improve dietary habits and for balanced nutritional status, and to provide correct information on HFF.
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Fig. 1.
Kinds of health functional food consumed by the subjects. ∗: Superscripts are significantly different between gender by chi-square test (∗: p ＜ 0.05).
Table 1.
General characteristics and health-related lifestyle of the subjects
| Variables | Male (n = 179) | Female (n = 104) | t-value or χ 2-value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age (years) | 22.9 ± 2.0 1) | 21.1 ± 1.9 | 07.432∗∗∗2) |
| Type of residence | |||
| Living with family | 101 (56.4)2) | 76 (73.1) | 07.798∗ |
| Preparation of own meals | 052 (29.1) | 19 (18.3) | |
| Dormitory or etc. | 026 (14.5) | 09 (08.7) | |
| Pocket money (1,000 won/month) | |||
| ＜ 200 | 041 (22.9) | 22 (21.2) | 00.119 |
| 200-400 | 109 (60.9) | 65 (62.5) | |
| ≥400 | 029 (16.2) | 17 (16.3) | |
| Eating out (times/week) | |||
| ≤1 | 037 (20.7) | 21 (20.2) | 00.015 |
| 2-4 | 102 (57.0) | 60 (57.7) | |
| ≥5 | 040 (22.1) | 23 (22.1) | |
| Frequency of exercise (times/week) | |||
| None | 002 (23.5) | 04 (61.5) | 41.179∗∗∗ |
| 1-2 | 084 (46.9) | 25 (24.0) | |
| ≥3 | 053 (29.6) | 15 (14.4) | |
| Frequency of alcohol drinking (times/week) | |||
| None | 005 (19.6) | 41 (39.4) | 00.173∗∗ |
| ≤1 | 090 (50.3) | 43 (41.3) | |
| 2-4 | 051 (28.5) | 16 (17.0) | |
| ≥5 | 003 (01.7) | 03 (02.9) |
Table 2.
Anthropometric parameters of the subjects
| Variables | Male (n = 179) | Female (n = 104) | t-value or χ 2-value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Height (cm) | 174.7 ± 6.4 1) | 160.8 ± 4.6 | -19.53∗∗∗2) |
| Weight (kg) | 071.5 ± 10.4 | 053.9 ± 6.4 | -15.61∗∗∗ |
| Percent body fat (%) | 018.9 ± 11.0 | 027.9 ± 4.5 | 0-7.88∗∗∗ |
| BMI 2) (kg/m | 023.4 ± 03.5 | 020.9 ± 2.2 | -06.75∗∗∗ |
| Underweight | 06 (03.4) | 009 (08.7) | |
| Normal | 84 (46.9) | 078 (75.0) | -35.165∗∗∗ |
| Overweight | 41 (22.9) | 013 (12.5) | |
| Obesity | 48 (26.8) | 004 (03.8) |
Table 3.
Motivation for purchase, reason for consumption and effect after consumption of functional food purchase
| Variables | Male (n = 72) | Female (n = 52) |
|---|---|---|
| Motivation for health functional food purchase NS1) | ||
| Recommendation of family or relatives | 55 (76.4) 2) | 41 (78.8) |
| Advertise (TV, internet, newspaper, magazine and etc.) | 10 (13.9) | 05 (09.6) |
| Recommendation of expert such as doctors and pharmacist or salespeople | 02 (02.8) | 03 (05.8) |
| Others | 05 (06.9) | 03 (05.8) |
| Reason for consumption | ||
| Health promotion | 48 (66.7) | 33 (63.5) |
| Disease treatment or prevention | 08 (11.1) | 07 (13.5) |
| Weight or beauty management | 08 (11.1) | 07 (13.5) |
| Others | 08 (11.1) | 05 (09.5) |
| Effect after consumption | ||
| Very effective | 06 (08.3) | 02 (03.8) |
| Effective | 35 (48.6) | 26 (50.0) |
| Little effective | 08 (11.1) | 09 (17.3) |
| Not sure | 23 (31.9) | 15 (28.8) |
Table 4.
Reason for no consumption of health functional food
| Variables | Male (n = 107) | Female (n = 52) |
|---|---|---|
| Have no health problem NS1) | 53 (49.5) 2) | 24 (46.2) |
| Doubt on effectiveness | 23 (21.5) | 09 (17.3) |
| Enough healthy dietary habbits | 15 (14.0) | 12 (23.1) |
| Expensive price | 06 (05.6) | 03 (05.8) |
| Others | 10 (09.4) | 04 (07.7) |
Table 5.
Dietary habit scores of the subjects
| Variables | Male | Female | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Consumers (n = 72) | Non consumers (n = 107) | Total (n = 179) | Consumers (n = 52) | Non consumers (n = 52) | Total (n = 104) | |
| Eat breakfast regularly | 03.4 ± 1.3 1) | 3.4 ± 1.2 | 03.4 ± 1.3 | 03.6 ± 1.3 | 03.3 ± 1.2 | 03.4 ± 1.3 |
| Eat meals at regular times | 03.2 ± 1.1 | 3.2 ± 1.1 | 03.2 ± 1.1 | 02.8 ± 0.9 | 03.0 ± 1.1 | 03.0 ± 1.1 |
| Take enough time to have meals | 02.5 ± 1.1 | 2.6 ± 1.1 | 02.6 ± 1.1 | 02.8 ± 1.0 | 03.3 ± 1.1∗ | 03.0 ± 1.2 |
| Have meals with diverse foods | 03.4 ± 0.9 | 3.5 ± 0.9 | 03.4 ± 0.9 | 03.1 ± 1.0 | 03.2 ± 0.8 | 03.2 ± 0.9 |
| Eat adequate amount of meals | 02.8 ± 0.9 | 2.9 ± 1.1 | 02.9 ± 1.0 | 02.7 ± 1.0 | 02.8 ± 1.0 | 02.8 ± 1.0 |
| Not eat salty foods | 03.0 ± 1.1 | 2.9 ± 1.0 | 02.9 ± 1.0 | 02.7 ± 1.0 | 03.1 ± 1.1 | 02.9 ± 1.1 |
| Eat foods such as meat, fish, eggs, and beans more than two times a day | 03.4 ± 1.1 | 3.5 ± 0.9 | 03.4 ± 1.0 | 03.2 ± 1.0 | 03.0 ± 1.1 | 03.1 ± 1.0 |
| Avoide eating foods containing oil more than two times a day | 03.4 ± 1.0 | 3.5 ± 1.0 | 03.5 ± 1.0 | 03.4 ± 1.1 | 03.6 ± 0.9 | 03.5 ± 1.0 |
| Eat dairy product (milk, yogurt, etc) everyday | 03.3 ± 1.2 | 3.2 ± 1.3 | 03.2 ± 1.2 | 03.1 ± 1.1 | 02.5 ± 1.1∗∗ | 02.8 ± 1.1 |
| Eat greenish yellow vegetable everday | 03.0 ± 1.0 | 3.0 ± 1.1 | 03.0 ± 1.0 | 02.9 ± 1.0 | 02.9 ± 1.1 | 02.9 ± 1.0 |
| Eat fruits everyday | 02.8 ± 1.2 | 2.5 ± 1.1 | 02.6 ± 1.1 | 02.9 ± 1.1 | 02.6 ± 1.1 | 02.8 ± 1.1 |
| Eat natural foods mostly | 02.9 ± 0.8 | 2.9 ± 0.7 | 02.9 ± 0.8 | 02.6 ± 1.0 | 02.9 ± 0.9 | 02.8 ± 1.0 |
| Purchase processed foods after identifying nutrition labels | 02.2 ± 1.2 | 2.2 ± 1.1 | 02.2 ± 1.1 | 02.9 ± 1.2 | 02.6 ± 1.3 | 02.8 ± 1.3 |
| Apply nutrition knowledge to daily life | 03.1 ± 1.1 | 2.9 ± 0.9 | 02.9 ± 1.0 | 02.9 ± 1.0 | 02.8 ± 1.1 | 02.9 ± 1.0 |
| Total score | 42.5 ± 7.6 | 1.9 ± 6.0 | 42.2 ± 6.7 | 41.9 ± 7.3 | 41.7 ± 7.5 | 41.8 ± 7.4 |
Table 6.
Daily nutrient intakes of the subjects
| Variables | Male | Female | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Consumers (n = 72) | Non consumers (n = 107) | Total (n = 179) | Consumers (n = 52) | Non consumers (n = 52) | Total (n = 104) | |
| Energy (kcal) | 1917.2 ± 399.31) | 1907.1 ± 399.3 | 1911.1 ± 419.3 | 1568.8 ± 336.2 | 1586.4 ± 342.1 | 1577.6 ± 337.6 |
| %EER | 73.7 ± 15.4 | 73.4 ± 16.7 | 73.5 ± 16.1 | 74.7 ± 16.0 | 75.5 ± 16.3 | 75.1 ± 16.1 |
| Protein (g) | 82.6 ± 33.3 | 79.5 ± 25.2 | 80.7 ± 28.7 | 62.1 ± 6.6 | 65.4 ± 24.6 | 63.7 ± 21.0 |
| %RI | 150.1 ± 60.6 | 144.5 ± 45.7 | 146.8 ± 52.1 | 124.1 ± 33.2 | 130.7 ± 49.3 | 127.4 ± 41.9 |
| Vit A (µgR.E) | 673.6 ± 241.4 | 683.1 ± 323.5 | 679.3 ± 292.5 | 637.3 ± 225.3 | 633.1 ± 251.8 | 635.2 ± 237.8 |
| %RI | 89.8 ± 32.2 | 91.1 ± 43.1 | 90.6 ± 39.0 | 98.0 ± 34.7 | 97.4 ± 38.7 | 97.7 ± 36.6 |
| Vit B1 (mg) | 1.5 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.4 ± 0.5 | 1.1 ± 0.3 | 1.1 ± 0.4 | 1.1 ± 0.4 |
| %RI | 122.8 ± 38.1 | 114.2 ± 37.8 | 117.6 ± 38.1 | 96.1 ± 31.1 | 98.3 ± 35.9 | 97.2 ± 33.4 |
| Vit B2 (mg) | 1.2 ± 0.4 | 1.2 ± 0.4 | 1.2 ± 0.4 | 1.1 ± 0.4 | 1.0 ± 0.3∗ | 1.0 ± 0.3 |
| %RI | 82.1 ± 24.4 | 79.9 ± 24.1 | 80.8 ± 24.2 | 91.0 ± 31.6 | 80.0 ± 24.4 | 85.5 ± 28.6 |
| Niacin (mg) | 18.0 ± 5.8 | 17.5 ± 4.8 | 17.7 ± 5.2 | 14.3 ± 4.6 | 14.7 ± 4.9 | 14.5 ± 4.7 |
| %RI | 112.3 ± 36.5 | 109.6 ± 30.0 | 110.7 ± 32.7 | 102.0 ± 32.6 | 104.6 ± 34.8 | 103.3 ± 33.6 |
| Folic acid | 206.1 ± 67.5 | 197.0 ± 69.7 | 200.7 ± 68.8 | 188.4 ± 64.8 | 172.5 ± 56.2 | 180.4 ± 61.0 |
| (µgDFE) | ||||||
| %RI | 51.5 ± 16.9 | 49.2 ± 17.4 | 50.2 ± 17.2 | 47.1 ± 16.2 | 43.1 ± 14.1 | 45.1 ± 15.3 |
| Vit C (mg) | 75.2 ± 39.9 | 74.3 ± 57.3 | 74.7 ± 50.9 | 67.0 ± 32.3 | 63.3 ± 34.8 | 65.2 ± 33.4 |
| %RI | 75.2 ± 39.9 | 74.3 ± 57.3 | 74.7 ± 50.9 | 67.0 ± 32.3 | 63.3 ± 34.8 | 65.2 ± 33.4 |
| Ca (mg) | 464.2 ± 166.4 | 480.0 ± 212.9 | 473.7 ± 195.2 | 447.8 ± 151.9 | 385.3 ± 120.5∗ | 416.5 ± 140.0 |
| %RI | 61.9 ± 22.2 | 64.0 ± 28.4 | 63.2 ± 26.0 | 68.9 ± 23.4 | 59.3 ± 18.5 | 64.1 ± 21.5 |
| P (mg) | 1002.7 ± 260.7 | 1014.3 ± 277.3 | 1009.6 ± 270.0 | 847.0 ± 213.6 | 818.6 ± 214.3 | 832.8 ± 213.4 |
| %RI | 143.2 ± 37.2 | 144.9 ± 39.6 | 144.2 ± 38.6 | 121.0 ± 30.5 | 116.9 ± 30.6 | 119.0 ± 30.5 |
| Fe (mg) | 12.9 ± 5.0 | 12.8 ± 3.9 | 12.8 ± 4.3 | 10.9 ± 2.8 | 10.7 ± 3.5 | 10.8 ± 3.2 |
| %RI | 128.7 ± 49.5 | 127.6 ± 38.6 | 128.1 ± 43.2 | 78.2 ± 20.3 | 76.6 ± 25.0 | 77.4 ± 22.7 |
Table 7.
Nutrient adequacy ratio (NAR) and Mean nutrient adequacy ratio (MAR) of the subjects
| Variables | Male | Female | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Consumers (n = 72) | Non consumers (n = 107) | Total (n = 179) | Consumers (n = 52) | Non consumers (n = 52) | Total (n = 104) | |
| NAR | ||||||
| Protein | 0.99 ± 0.051) | 0.98 ± 0.06 | 0.98 ± 0.06 | 0.97 ± 0.07 | 0.97 ± 0.06 | 0.97 ± 0.07 |
| Vit A | 0.81 ± 0.20 | 0.80 ± 0.20 | 0.81 ± 0.20 | 0.86 ± 0.18 | 0.84 ± 0.19 | 0.85 ± 0.19 |
| Vit B1 | 0.94 ± 0.11 | 0.92 ± 0.14 | 0.93 ± 0.13 | 0.85 ± 0.16 | 0.85 ± 0.18 | 0.85 ± 0.17 |
| Vit B2 | 0.78 ± 0.18 | 0.77 ± 0.19 | 0.78 ± 0.19 | 0.83 ± 0.18 | 0.77 ± 0.17 | 0.80 ± 0.18 |
| Niacin | 0.92 ± 0.12 | 0.93 ± 0.12 | 0.92 ± 0.12 | 0.88 ± 0.15 | 0.89 ± 0.14 | 0.88 ± 0.15 |
| Folic acid | 0.51 ± 0.17 | 0.49 ± 0.17 | 0.50 ± 0.17 | 0.47 ± 0.16 | 0.43 ± 0.14 | 0.45 ± 0.15 |
| Vit C | 0.68 ± 0.25 | 0.63 ± 0.26 | 0.65 ± 0.26 | 0.63 ± 0.24 | 0.58 ± 0.25 | 0.61 ± 0.25 |
| Ca | 0.62 ± 0.22 | 0.62 ± 0.23 | 0.62 ± 0.23 | 0.67 ± 0.20 | 0.59 ± 0.17∗ | 0.63 ± 0.19 |
| P | 0.99 ± 0.05 | 0.98 ± 0.07 | 0.98 ± 0.06 | 0.96 ± 0.09 | 0.96 ± 0.06 | 0.96 ± 0.08 |
| Fe | 0.95 ± 0.10 | 0.95 ± 0.11 | 0.95 ± 0.11 | 0.76 ± 0.17 | 0.73 ± 0.18 | 0.75 ± 0.18 |
| MAR | 0.81 ± 0.10 | 0.81 ± 0.12 | 0.81 ± 0.11 | 0.79 ± 0.12 | 0.76 ± 0.10 | 0.78 ± 0.11 |
Table 8.
Nutrient density (ND) of the subjects
| Variables | Male | Female | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Consumers (n = 72) | Non consumers (n = 107) | Total (n = 179) | Consumers (n = 52) | Non consumers (n = 52) | Total (n = 104) | |
| Protein (g/1,000 kcal) | 42.5 ± 11.8 1) | 41.4 ± 7.1 | 41.9 ± 9.3 | 39.5 ± 5.8 | 41.3 ± 14.7 | 40.4 ± 11.1 |
| Vit A (µgR.E/1,000 kcal) | 355.0 ± 118.9 | 359.6 ± 148.7 | 357.7 ± 137.2 | 410.9 ± 143.1 | 398.1 ± 123.2 | 404.5 ± 133.0 |
| Vit B1 (mg/1,000 kcal) | 0.8 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.2∗ | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.7 ± 0.2 |
| Vit B2 (mg/1,000 kcal) | 0.6 ± 0.1 | 0.6 ± 0.1 | 0.6 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 0.2 | 0.6 ± 0.1∗∗ | 0.7 ± 0.2 |
| Niacin (mg/1,000 kcal) | 9.3 ± 2.0 | 9.3 ± 1.8 | 9.3 ± 1.9 | 9.1 ± 2.1 | 9.2 ± 1.9 | 9.1 ± 2.0 |
| Vit B6 (mg/1,000 kcal) | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 1.0 ± 0.2 |
| Folic acid (mg/1,000 kcal) | 108.9 ± 36.4 | 103.6 ± 31.1 | 105.8 ± 33.3 | 120.3 ± 33.5 | 108.7 ± 26.4 | 114.5 ± 30.6 |
| Vit C (mg/1,000 kcal) | 40.4 ± 24.6 | 39.4 ± 30.0 | 39.8 ± 27.9 | 43.0 ± 18.6 | 40.2 ± 21.7 | 41.6 ± 20.2 |
| Ca (mg/1,000 kcal) | 243.5 ± 84.5 | 251.4 ± 99.0 | 248.2 ± 93.3 | 285.5 ± 74.0 | 244.7 ± 64.1∗∗ | 265.1 ± 71.9 |
| P (mg/1,000 kcal) | 522.2 ± 80.3 | 532.3 ± 89.5 | 528.3 ± 85.8 | 540.7 ± 83.2 | 515.9 ± 67.4 | 528.3 ± 76.4 |
| Fe (mg/1,000 kcal) | 6.7 ± 2.0 | 6.7 ± 1.7 | 6.7 ± 1.8 | 7.0 ± 1.2 | 6.8 ± 1.6 | 6.9 ± 1.5 |
| Zn (mg/1,000 kcal) | 4.7 ± 0.7 | 4.6 ± 0.8 | 4.7 ± 0.7 | 4.5 ± 0.8 | 4.9 ± 2.6 | 4.7 ± 1.9 |
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