Dietary Behavior Related to Salty Food Intake of Adults Living in a Rural Area according to Saline Sensitivity

Mi-Kyoung Kim; Jang-Il Han; Young-Jin Chung

doi:10.4163/kjn.2011.44.6.537

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Kim, Han, and Chung: Dietary Behavior Related to Salty Food Intake of Adults Living in a Rural Area according to Saline Sensitivity

Original Article

Korean J Nutr 2011;44(6):537-550.

Published online: 8 January 2011

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4163/kjn.2011.44.6.537

Dietary Behavior Related to Salty Food Intake of Adults Living in a Rural Area according to Saline Sensitivity

Mi-Kyoung Kim, Jang-Il Han, Young-Jin Chung^§

Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 305-764, Korea

^§To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: yjchung@cnu.ac.kr

Revised 23 August 201114 September 2011 Accepted 21 November 2011

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

This study was conducted to identify behavioral characteristics of salty food intake according to saline sensitivity of adults living in a rural area. Anthropometry and blood pressure were measured and salt intake-related dietary behavior was surveyed by questionnaires through interviews with 402 subjects aged ≥ 40 years in Chungcheongbuk-Do, Korea. The percentages of overweight and obese among the subjects were 37.8% and 3.8% respectively. Mean blood pressure of the subjects was in the normal range, but the distribution of subjects who were normotensive, high normal, and hypertensive was 48.7%, 17.7%, and 33.6% respectively. Approximately 27% of all subjects habitually consumed salty food, which was the smallest group, followed by 38.1% normal and 35.1% not-salty food. However, 34.6% of the eldest group of ≥ 65 years consumed salty food. The saline insensitive group showed a higher percentage of irregular meals, overeating, speed-eating, an unbalanced diet, a preference for fried food, and habitual intake of salty foods. These subjects recognized the risk for eating salty food, but they lacked the will to reduce their salty food intake. Compared to spouses and family members, experts such as doctors, nurses, and dieticians were the most influential for reducing the salty food intake of subjects. Saline sensitive group had relatively better control over salty food intake at every meal, eating out, and even when eating salty food that the spouse preferred. The saline sensitive group ate more frequently vegetables and fruits, whereas the saline insensitive group ate more frequently hot spicy foods. In conclusion, the results suggest that it is necessary to establish a social atmosphere toward reducing salt intake at the level of the government and food industry and to set action plans to be available for nutrition education programs to reduce salt intake nationwide.

Keywords: salty food intake, dietary behavior, adult, rural area, saline-sensitivity

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Table 1.

General characteristics of the subjects by sex

Variable	Males	Females	Total	p-value
Age (yrs)
-40	001 (000.8) ¹⁾	011 (004.1)	012 (03.0)	NS ²⁾
41-50	034 (025.6) ¹⁾	047 (017.5)	081 (020.1)
51-60	033 (024.8) ¹⁾	081 (030.1)	114 (028.4)
61-70	054 (033.5) ¹⁾	107 (039.8)	161 (040.0)
71-	011 (0v8.3) ¹⁾	023 (008.6)	034 (008.5)
Total	133 (100.0) ¹⁾	269 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
Education				0.000^∗∗∗1)
No schooling	009 (007.0) ¹⁾	057 (021.3)	066 (016.7)
Primary school	046 (035.7) ¹⁾	125 (046.8)	171 (043.2)
Middle school	033 (025.6) ¹⁾	040 (015.0)	073 (018.4)
High school	032 (024.8) ¹⁾	037 (013.9)	069 (017.4)
College or over	009 (0v7.0) ¹⁾	008 (003.0)	017 (004.3)
Total	129 (100.0) ¹⁾	267 (100.0)	396 (100.0)
Spouse				0.000^∗∗∗1)
Yes	116 (089.9) ¹⁾	0197 (074.1)	313 (079.2)
No	013 (010.1) ¹⁾	069 (025.9)	082 (020.8)
Total	129 (100.0) ¹⁾	266 (100.0)	395 (100.0)
Occupation				NS ²⁾
Agriculture	063 (047.7) ¹⁾	117 (043.5)	180 (044.9)
Not agriculture	053 (040.2) ¹⁾	112 (045.4)	175 (043.6)
Unoccupied	016 (012.1) ¹⁾	030 (011.2)	046 (011.5)
Total	132 (100.0) ¹⁾	269 (100.0)	401 (100.0)

¹⁾ Values were expressed by N (%) and significances were tested by chi-square test

^∗∗∗ p ＜ 0.001)

²⁾ NS means ‘Not Significant’

Table 2.

Anthropometric characteristics and blood pressure of the subjects by age

Variable	Age (yrs)			Total	p-value
Variable	＜50	50-65	65≤	Total	p-value
Height (cm)
Male	166.1 ± 6.7	163.8 ± 7.5	162.5 ± 8.0	163.8 ± 7.6	0.075^∗∗
Female	156.9 ± 5.8 ^a	156.2 ± 7.5 ^a	153.1 ± 7.9 ^b	155.2 ± 7.5	0.002^∗∗
Total	159.5 ± 7.3 ^a1)	158.9 ± 8.4 ^a	156.0 ± 9.0 ^b	158.0 ± 8.5	0.003^∗∗
Weight (kg)
Male	65.5 ± 11.5 ^a	65.1 ± 10.1 ^a	59.0 ± 9.5 ^b	63.2 ± 10.5	0.014^∗
Female	58.9 ± 8.2	60.4 ± 9.9	58.3 ± 9.4	59.3 ± 9.4	0.740^∗∗
Total	60.8 ± 9.7 ^ab	62.0 ± 10.2 ^a	58.5 ± 9.4 ^b	60.6 ± 9.9	0.100^∗∗
BMI (kg/m²) ²⁾
Male	23.9 ± 2.9	24.3 ± 3.5	22.4 ± 3.5	23.6 ± 3.5	0.083^∗∗
Female	23.9 ± 3.3	24.7 ± 3.6	24.8 ± 3.2	24.6 ± 3.3	0.121^∗∗
Total	23.9 ± 3.2	24.6 ± 3.5	24.1 ± 3.5	24.3 ± 3.4	0.763^∗∗
Arm circumference (cm)
Male	29.3 ± 2.5 ^a	28.8 ± 3.1 ^ab	27.4 ± 2.7 ^b	28.4 ± 2.9	0.014^∗
Female	28.5 ± 3.1	29.0 ± 3.0	28.9 ± 6.8	28.8 ± 4.7	0.610^∗∗
Total	28.7 ± 2.9	28.9 ± 3.0	28.4 ± 5.9	28.7 ± 4.2	0.642^∗∗
WHR ³⁾
Male	0.85 ± 0.10	0.92 ± 0.13	0.89 ± 0.09	0.90 ± 0.12	0.242^∗∗
Female	0.85 ± 0.06	0.98 ± 0.74	0.90 ± 0.05	0.92 ± 0.49	0.521^∗∗
Total	0.85 ± 0.07	0.95 ± 0.57	0.89 ± 0.63	0.91 ± 0.39	0.405^∗∗
SBP (mmHg)⁴⁾
Male	126.2 ± 12.8	126.6 ± 13.6	126.2 ± 13.9	126.4 ± 13.5	0.995^∗∗
Female	120.4 ± 15.0 ^b	125.5 ± 13.2 ^ab	127.9 ± 14.9 ^a	125.3 ± 14.4	0.002^∗∗
Total	122.1 ± 14.5 ^b	125.9 ± 13.4 ^ab	127.4 ± 14.6 ^a	125.7 ± 10.1	0.008^∗∗
DBP (mmHg) ⁵⁾
Male	81.7 ± 14.4	84.4 ± 10.7	80.9 ± 9.9	82.8 ± 11.3	0.781^∗∗
Female	80.9 ± 11.2	81.1 ± 9.9	83.0 ± 9.9	81.7 ± 10.2	0.224^∗∗
Total	81.1 ± 12.1	82.3 ± 10.3	82.3 ± 9.9	82.1 ± 10.6	0.418^∗∗

¹⁾ Values were expressed by Mean ± SD. Significances were tested by ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple range test

^∗ p ＜ 0.05

^∗∗ p ＜ 0.01). Different letters

^a, b, c mean significant differences by age group

²⁾ BMI (Body Mass Index, kg body weight/m² Height)

³⁾ WHR (Waist-Hip Ratio) = Waist (cm)/Hip (cm)

⁴⁾ SBP : Systolic Blood Pressure

⁵⁾ DBP : Diastolic Blood Pressure

Table 3.

Eating behavior related to salty food intake of the subjects by age

Variable	Age (yrs)			Total	p-value
Variable	＜50	50-65	65≤	Total	p-value
Which food do you take usually?
Salty food	15 (019.2) ¹⁾	046 (024.5)	047 (034.6)	108 (026.9)	0.022^∗1)
Normal food	37 (047.5) ¹⁾	065 (034.6)	051 (037.5)	153 (038.0)
Not salty food	26 (033.3) ¹⁾	077 (040.9)	038 (027.9)	141 (035.1)
Total	78 (100.0) ¹⁾	188 (100.0)	136 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
When I eat out, I feel that the food is
Salty	18 (023.1) ¹⁾	041 (021.8)	034 (025.0)	093 (023.1)	NS ²⁾
Normal	47 (060.2) ¹⁾	113 (060.1)	080 (058.8)	240 (059.7)
Not salty	13 (016.7) ¹⁾	034 (018.1)	022 (006.2)	069 (017.2)
Total	78 (100.0) ¹⁾	188 (100.0)	136 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
Compared with my offsprings’ taste, I choose food
More salty	03 (003.8) ¹⁾	014 (007.5)	022 (016.1)	039 (009.7)	0.004^∗∗1)
Similar salty	56 (071.8) ¹⁾	104 (055.3)	070 (051.5)	230 (057.2)
Less salty	19 (024.4) ¹⁾	070 (037.2)	044 (032.4)	133 (033.1)
Total	78 (100.0) ¹⁾	188 (100.0)	136 (100.0)	402 (100.0)

¹⁾ Values were expressed by N (%) and significances were tested by chi-square test

^∗ p ＜ 0.05

^∗∗ p ＜ 0.01)

²⁾ NS means ‘Not Significant’

Table 4.

Sensory response on 1% saline solution of the subjects by age

Sensory response	Age (yrs)			Total	p-value
Sensory response	＜50	50-65	65≤	Total	p-value
Salty	43 (055.1) ¹⁾	99 (052.7)	060 (044.1)	202 (050.3)	NS ²⁾
Normal	29 (037.2) ¹⁾	75 (039.9)	061 (044.9)	165 (041.0)
Not salty	06 (007.7) ¹⁾	14 (007.4)	015 (011.0)	035 (008.7)
Total	78 (100.0) ¹⁾	188 (100.0)	136 (100.0)	402 (100.0)

¹⁾ Values were expressed by N (%) and significances were tested by chi-square test

²⁾ NS means not significant at p ＜ 0.05

Table 5.

Distribution of blood pressures of three groups by saline sensitivity

Variable	Sensitive group	Moderate group	Insensitive group	Total	p-value
Systolic blood pressure
Normal	117 (058.2) ¹⁾	104 (062.7)	019 (054.3)	240 (059.7)	NS ²⁾
High normal	051 (025.4) ¹⁾	038 (022.9)	007 (020.0)	096 (023.9)
Hypertension	033 (016.4) ¹⁾	024 (014.5)	009 (025.7)	066 (016.4)
Total	201 (100.0) ¹⁾	166 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
Means ± SD	126.0 ± 13.9 ³⁾	125.3 ± 14.2	125.4 ± 14.8	125.7 ± 10.1	0.8991
Diastolic blood pressure
Normal	130 (064.7) ¹⁾	108 (065.1)	026 (074.3)	264 (065.7)	NS ²⁾
High normal	012 (006.0) ¹⁾	011 (006.6)	002 (005.7)	025 (006.2)
Hypertension	059 (029.4) ¹⁾	047 (028.3)	007 (020.0)	113 (028.1)
Total	201 (100.0) ¹⁾	166 (100.0)	035 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
Means ± SD	82.2 ± 10.7 ³⁾	082.8 ± 10.4	078.3 ± 1.01	082.1 ± 10.6	0.0727

¹⁾ Values were expressed by N (%) and significances were tested by chi-square test

²⁾ NS means not significant at p ＜ 0.05

³⁾ Values are mean blood pressure by three sensitivity group. Significances were tested by ANOVA

Table 6.

Dietary behaviors of three groups by saline sensitivity

Variable	Sensitive group	Moderate group	Insensitive group	Total	p-value
Regularity of meal time
Regular	124 (061.4) ¹⁾	114 (069.1)	17 (048.6)	255 (063.4)	NS ²⁾
Fair	060 (029.7)¹⁾	041 (024.8)	15 (042.9)	116 (028.9)
Very Irregular	018 (0v8.9)¹⁾	010 (006.1)	03 (008.6)	031 (07.7)
Total	202 (100.0) ¹⁾	165 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
Amount of foods per meal
More than adequate	053 (026.2)¹⁾	031 (018.9)	11 (031.4)	095 (023.7)	0.016^∗¹⁾
Adequate	105 (052.0)¹⁾	101 (061.6)	11 (031.4)	217 (054.1)
Less than adequate	036 (017.8) ¹⁾	024 (014.6)	08 (022.9)	068 (017.0)
Others	008 (004.0) ¹⁾	008 (004.9)	05 (014.3)	021 (005.2)
Total	202 (100.0) ¹⁾	164 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	401 (100.0)
Meal time (mim)
＜10	081 (040.1) ¹⁾	064 (038.8)	18 (051.4)	163 (040.5)	NS ²⁾
10-20	079 (039.1) ¹⁾	073 (044.5)	12 (034.3)	164 (040.8)
20-30	033 (016.3) ¹⁾	019 (011.5)	05 (014.3)	057 (014.2)
＞30	009 (004.5)¹⁾	009 (005.5)	-	018 (004.5)
Total	202 (100.0) ¹⁾	165 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
Do you eat only what you wants?
Yes	014 (0v6.9) ¹⁾	008 (004.8)	03 (008.6)	025 (006.2)	NS ²⁾
A little bit	029 (014.4)¹⁾	031 (018.8)	08 (022.9)	068 (016.9)
Rare or never	159 (078.7)¹⁾	126 (076.3)	24 (068.6)	309 (076.8)
Total	202 (100.0) ¹⁾	165 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
Frequency of snack
2-3 times/day	047 (023.4)¹⁾	041 (024.9)	04 (011.5)	092 (023.0)	0.087^∗¹⁾
once/day	067 (033.3)¹⁾	071 (043.0)	12 (034.3)	150 (037.4)
None	087 (043.3) ¹⁾	053 (032.1)	19 (054.3)	159 (039.7)
Total	201 (100.0) ¹⁾	165 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	401 (100.0)
Frequency of eating out
1-2 times a day	011 (005.5)¹⁾	013 (007.9)	04 (011.4)	028 (007.0)	NS ²⁾
once a week	055 (027.4) ¹⁾	040 (024.4)	09 (025.7)	104 (026.0)
once a month	057 (028.4) ¹⁾	048 (029.3)	10 (028.6)	115 (028.8)
None	078 (038.8)¹⁾	063 (038.4)	12 (034.3)	153 (038.3)
Total	201 (100.0) ¹⁾	164 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	400 (100.0)
Favorate cooking method
Roasting	120 (059.4) ¹⁾	095 (057.6)	15 (042.9)	230 (057.2)	NS ²⁾
Panbroiling or Frying	028 (013.9)¹⁾	025 (015.2)	09 (025.7)	062 (015.4)
Broiling	015 (007.4)¹⁾	011 (006.7)	03 (008.6)	029 (007.2)
Boiling	039 (019.3) ¹⁾	034 (020.6)	08 (022.9)	081 (020.1)
Total	202 (100.0) ¹⁾	165 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	402 (100.0)

¹⁾ Values were expressed by N (%) and significances were tested by chi-square test

^∗ p ＜ 0.05)

²⁾ NS means ‘Not Significant’

Table 7.

Behavioral belief and self appraisal about salty food intake of three groups by saline sensitivity

Variable	Sensitive group	Moderate group	Insensitive group	Total	p-value
Do you eat salty food habitually?
No	063 (031.2) ¹⁾	046 (028.4)	04 (011.4)	113 (028.3)	NS ²⁾
So so	029 (014.4) ¹⁾	024 (014.8)	09 (025.7)	062 (015.5)
Yes	110 (054.5) ¹⁾	092 (056.8)	22 (062.9)	024 (056.1)
Total	202 (100.0) ¹⁾	162 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	399 (100.0)
Do you think that salty food is not good for health?
Little	008 (004.0) ¹⁾	006 (003.6)	01 (002.9)	015 (003.7)	NS ²⁾
So so	018 (008.9) ¹⁾	018 (010.9)	06 (017.1)	042 (010.4)
Much	176 (087.1) ¹⁾	141 (085.5)	28 (080.0)	345 (085.8)
Total	202 (100.0) ¹⁾	165 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
What do you think about the habitual intake of salty food?
Bad	166 (083.4) ¹⁾	113 (070.6)	24 (070.6)	303 (077.1)	0.023^∗¹⁾
So so	024 (012.1) ¹⁾	028 (017.5)	05 (014.7)	057 (014.5)
Not bad	009 (004.5) ¹⁾	019 (011.9)	05 (014.7)	033 (008.4)
Total	199 (100.0) ¹⁾	160 (100.0)	34 (100.0)	393 (100.0)
Do you need to reduce salt intake in your diet?
Yes	093 (046.0) ²⁾	101 (061.2)	16 (045.7)	210 (052.2)	0.032^∗¹⁾
A little bit	048 (023.8) ¹⁾	033 (020.0)	07 (020.0)	088 (021.9)
No	061 (030.2) ¹⁾	031 (018.8)	12 (034.3)	104 (025.9)
Total	202 (100.0) ¹⁾	165 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	402 (100.0)
Do you try to reduce salt intake?
Yes	043 (021.3) ¹⁾	027 (016.4)	05 (014.3)	075 (018.7)	NS ²⁾
A little bit	061 (030.2) ¹⁾	066 (040.0)	09 (025.7)	136 (033.8)
No	098 (048.5) ¹⁾	072 (043.6)	21 (060.0)	191 (047.5)
Total	202 (100.0) ¹⁾	165 (100.0)	35 (100.0)	402 (100.0)

¹⁾ Values were expressed by N (%) and significances were tested by chi-square test

^∗ p ＜ 0.05)

²⁾ NS means ‘Not Significant’

Table 8.

Supports and influences by the family members or experts of three groups by saline sensitivity

Variable	Sensitive group	Moderate group	Insensitive group	Total	p-value
Supports by family members or experts
Your spouse respond as
Opposite	025 (017.9) ¹⁾	024 (020.3)	07 (024.1)	056 (019.5)	NS ²⁾
So so	052 (037.1)	044 (037.3)	12 (041.4)	108 (037.6)
Support	063 (045.0)	050 (042.4)	10 (034.5)	123 (042.9)
Total	140 (100.0)	118 (100.0)	29 (100.0)	287 (100.0)
Offspring and relative respond as
Opposite	017 (010.6)	025 (018.1)	10 (031.3)	052 (015.7)	0.043^∗¹⁾
So so	058 (036.0)	043 (031.2)	08 (025.0)	109 (032.9)
Support	086 (053.4)	070 (050.7)	14 (043.8)	170 (051.4)
Total	161 (100.0)	138 (100.0)	32 (100.0)	331 (100.0)
Doctor, nurse and dietician respond as
Opposite	008 (007.1)	014 (014.4)	07 (033.3)	029 (012.6)	0.006^∗∗1)
So so	039 (034.5)	022 (022.7)	06 (028.6)	067 (029.0)
Support	066 (058.4)	061 (062.9)	08 (038.1)	135 (058.4)
Total	113 (100.0)	097 (100.0)	21 (100.0)	231 (100.0)
Influences by family members or experts
By spouse
Little	029 (017.7)	033 (025.2)	011 (037.9)	073 (022.5)	0.058^∗∗1)
So so	047 (028.7)	037 (028.2)	10 (034.5)	094 (029.0)
Much	088 (053.7)	061 (046.6)	08 (027.6)	157 (048.5)
Total	164 (100.0)	131 (100.0)	29 (100.0)	324 (100.0)
By offspring or relatives? ²⁾
Little	040 (020.9)	036 (023.4)	13 (038.2)	089 (023.5)	NS ²⁾
So so	057 (029.8)	052 (033.8)	10 (029.4)	119 (031.4)
Much	094 (049.2)	066 (042.9)	11 (032.4)	171 (045.1)
Total	191 (100.0)	154 (100.0)	34 (100.0)	379 (100.0)
By doctors, nurses and dieticians
Little	019 (013.9)	019 (017.0)	09 (040.9)	047 (017.3)	0.001^∗∗1)
So so	029 (021.2)	032 (028.6)	09 (040.9)	070 (025.8)
Much	089 (065.0)	061 (054.5)	04 (018.2)	154 (056.8)
Total	137 (100.0)	112 (100.0)	22 (100.0)	271 (100.0)

¹⁾ Values were expressed by N (%) and significances were tested by chi-square test

^∗ p ＜ 0.05

^∗∗ p ＜ 0.01)

²⁾ NS means ‘Not Significant’

Table 9.

Perceived control against salty food intake of three groups by saline sensitivity

Variable	Sensitive group	Moderate group	Insensitive group	Total	p-value
In every meal
Hard	062 (037.8) ¹⁾	071 (049.7)	25 (073.5)	158 (046.3)	0.001^∗∗¹⁾
So so	053 (032.3) ¹⁾	046 (032.2)	07 (020.6)	106 (031.1)
Not hard	049 (029.9) ¹⁾	026 (018.2)	02 (005.9)	077 (022.6)
Total	164 (100.0) ¹⁾	143 (100.0)	34 (100.0)	341 (100.0)
In eating out
Hard	053 (034.0) ¹⁾	049 (035.5)	16 (051.6)	118 (036.3)	NS ²⁾
So so	067 (042.9) ¹⁾	053 (038.4)	12 (038.7)	132 (040.6)
Not hard	036 (023.1) ¹⁾	036 (026.1)	03 (009.7)	075 (023.1)
Total	156 (100.0) ¹⁾	138 (100.0)	31 (100.0)	325 (100.0)
When spouse likes salty food
Hard	054 (044.3) ¹⁾	044 (041.9)	16 (064.0)	114 (045.2)	NS ²⁾
So so	048 (039.3) ¹⁾	044 (041.9)	08 (032.0)	100 (039.7)
Not hard	020 (016.4) ¹⁾	017 (016.2)	01 (004.0)	038 (015.1)
Total	122 (100.0) ¹⁾	105 (100.0)	25 (100.0)	252 (100.0)

¹⁾ 1) Values were expressed by N (%) and significances were tested by chi-square test (∗: p ＜ 0.05

^∗∗ p ＜ 0.01)

²⁾ NS means ‘Not Significant’

Table 10.

Monthly intake frequency of major food and some specific food groups by saline sensitivity

Food groups	Sensitive group	Moderate group	Insensitive group	Total	p-value
Meats, chickens, Eggs	9.2 ± 11.8 ¹⁾	6.9 ± 10.8	12.2 ± 17.1	8.5 ± 12.0	0.975^∗∗
Fishes	8.0 ± 10.7	7.4 ± 11.9	6.3 ± 11.9	7.6 ± 11.3	0.412^∗∗
Legumes	23.0 ± 25.5	23.5 ± 23.9	13.7 ± 19.5	22.4 ± 24.4	0.177^∗∗
Nuts and seeds	2.8 ± 8.6	1.6 ± 6.5	2.1 ± 5.3	2.3 ± 7.6	0.222^∗∗
Vegetables	44.8 ± 26.8 ^a2)	41.0 ± 26.5 ^a	29.3 ± 24.2 ^b	41.9 ± 26.7	0.003^∗∗
Seaweeds and mushrooms	11.2 ± 16.2	10.1 ± 13.4	10.9 ± 16.8	10.7 ± 15.1	0.915^∗∗
Fruits	22.1 ± 22.2 ^a	17.0 ± 16.6 ^ab	13.6 ± 19.5 ^b	19.3 ± 20.0	0.003^∗∗
Milk and daily	13.8 ± 18.6	13.9 ± 15.6	9.3 ± 14.9	13.4 ± 17.1	0.157^∗∗
Oils	24.1 ± 21.4	26.6 ± 22.8	25.7 ± 26.1	25.3 ± 22.4	0.695^∗∗
Kimchies	51.0 ± 24.0	45.5 ± 27.1	47.6 ± 28.4	48.4 ± 25.8	0.109^∗∗
Hot food	12.4 ± 18.8^a	12.8 ± 18.0^a	26.1 ± 29.2^b	13.8 ± 19.9	0.006^∗∗
Fried food	1.6 ± 3.8	1.8 ± 3.4	3.1 ± 11.8	1.8 ± 4.9	0.207^∗∗
Processed meat and fish products	0.8 ± 2.2	0.8 ± 2.6	0.5 ± 1.2	0.8 ± 2.3	0.521^∗∗
Preserved salted food	10.2 ± 17.7	11.2 ± 15.4	15.3 ± 22.4	11.1 ± 17.3	0.156^∗∗

¹⁾ Values were expressed as monthly frequency by Mean ± SD. Significances were tested by ANOVA and Duncan’s multiple range test (∗: p ＜ 0.05

^∗∗ p ＜ 0.01)

²⁾ Different letters

^(a, b, c) mean significant differences by age group

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