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Park, Lee, and Lee: Study of the Coverage of Nutrition Labeling System on the Nutrient Intake of Koreans – using the 2013 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) Data
Research Article

Korean J Community Nutr 2018;23(2):116-127.

Published online: 20 January 2018

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2018.23.2.116

Study of the Coverage of Nutrition Labeling System on the Nutrient Intake of Koreans – using the 2013 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) Data

Ji Eun Park1), Haeng-Shin Lee2), Yoonna Lee3), †

1)Department of Nutrition Research Team, R&D Center, Nongshim, Seoul 07057, Korea

2)Department of Lifecare Industry, Korea Health Industry Development Institute, Chungbuk 28159, Korea

3)Department of Food and nutrition, Shingu College, Seongnam 13174, Korea

†Corresponding author Yoonna Lee Department of Food & Nutrition, Shingu College, 377 Gwangmyeong-ro, Seongnam, Gyeonggi-do 462-743, Korea Tel: (031) 740-1528 Fax: (031) 740-1590 E-mail: ynlee@shingu.ac.kr ORCID: 0000-0003-2302-3646

Received 12 February 2018       Revised 10 April 2018       Accepted 20 April 2018

Copyright © 2018 Journal of the Korean Society of Community Nutrition

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to examine the coverage of the current mandatory nutrition labeling system on the nutrient intake of Koreans.

Methods

KNHANES dietary intake data (2013) of 7,242 subjects were used in the analysis. KNHANES dietary intake data were collected by a 24-hour recall method by trained dietitians. For analysis, all food items consumed by the subjects were classified into two groups (foods with mandatory labeling and other foods). In the next step, all food items were reclassified into four groups according to the food type and nutrition labeling regulations: raw material food, processed food of raw material characteristics, processed foods without mandatory labeling, and processed foods with mandatory labeling. The intake of energy and five nutrients (carbohydrate, protein, fat, saturated fat, and sodium) of subjects from each food group were analyzed to determine the coverage of the mandatory nutrition labeling system among the total nutrient intake of Koreans.

Results

The average intake of foods with mandatory labeling were 384g/day, which was approximately one quarter of the total daily food intake (1,544 g/day). The proportion of energy and five nutrients intake from foods with mandatory labeling was 18.1%∼47.4%. The average food intake from the 4 food groups were 745 g/day (48.3%) for the raw food materials, 54 g/day (3.5%) for the processed food of raw material characteristics, 391 g/day (25.3%) for the processed foods without mandatory labeling, and 354 g/day (22.9%) for the processed foods with mandatory labeling.

Conclusions

Although nutrition labeling is a useful tool for providing nutritional information to consumers, the coverage of current mandatory nutrition labeling system on daily nutrient intake of the Korean population is not high. To encourage informed choices and improve healthy eating habits of the Korean population, the nutrition labeling system should be expanded to include more food items and foodservice menus.

Keywords: nutrition labeling, processed food, dietary intake, Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES)

References

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Fig. 1.
Proportion of food and nutrient intake from 4 food groups according to the food type and nutrition labeling regulation
kjcn-23-116f1.tif
Table 1.
Food group classification according to food type and nutrition labeling regulation
Group Classification Mandatory labeling The number of food item (Total=5,120)
Food class (Large classification) Food type (Small classification)
Raw food materials Raw food materials Agricultural/Fishery/Livestock and egg Products X 1,588
Processed foods of raw material characteristics Sugars White sugar, Brown sugar, Other Sugars X 20
  Glucose Liquid glucose, Powder or crystalline glucose X 1
  Fructose Liquid fructose, Crystalline fructose, Other fructoses X 1
  Glutinous Rice Jellies (Yeat) Molasses, Other yeats, Dextrin X 25
  Sugar Syrups   X 4
  Oligosaccharides Fructo-oligosaccharides, Isomalto-oligosaccharide,    
    Galacto-oligosaccharide, Malto-oligosaccharide, Xylo-oligosaccharide, Gentio-oligosaccharide, Other oligosaccharides X 2
  Edible Oils and Fats Soybean oil, Corn oil, Canola oil, Rice bran oil, Sesame    
    oil, Perilla seed oil, Safflower oil, Sunflower oil,    
    Cottonseed oil, Peanut oil, Olive oil, Palm oil, Coconut O 80
    oil, Mixed oil, Processed fat, Shortening, Margarine,    
    Hot pepper seed oil, Flavored oil, Other edible oils    
  Soy Sauces or Pastes Meju(Fermented soybeans), Korean style soy sauce,    
    Brewed soy sauce, Acid-hydrolyzed soy sauce,    
    Enzyme-hydrolyzed soy sauce, Mixed soy sauce,    
    Korean soybean paste, Soybean paste, Seasoned soybean paste, Gochujang (soy paste with red peppers), Seasoned gochujang(Seasoned soy paste with red peppers), Chunjang (Black-colored soy paste), Mixed paste, Others O 126
    Korean style Meju (Fermented soybeans), Korean    
    traditional soy sauce, Korean style soybean paste, X 5
    Cheonggukjang (Ground fermented soybean)    
  Seasonings Vinegars, Sauces, Tomato ketchup, Curry, Powdered    
    red pepper or shredded red pepper, Spice products, X 148
    Composite seasonings    
  Dressings Dressing, Mayonnaise X 19
  Other Foods Edible salts X 47
Processed foods, mandatory labeling Confectioneries Confectioneries, Candies, Ice candies O 319
Breads or rice cakes Breads, Dumplings O 170
Cocoa products or chocolates Chocolates O 32
Jams Jam, Marmalade, Other Jams O 16
  Processed meat and egg products Processed meat product (Sausages, Hams) O 117
  Fish meat products Fish sausage O 6
  Noodles Noodles, Naengmyeon (Cold noodle), Dangmyeon (Chinese noodle), Oil-fried noodles, Pastas, Other noodles O 143
  Coffees Formulated coffee, Liquid coffee O 19
  Beverages Fruit/vegetable beverages, Carbonated beverages, Soymilks, Fermented beverages, Ginseng/ red ginseng beverages, Other beverages O 269
  Foods for special dietary uses Infant formula, Follow-up formula, Cereal based foods for infants and young children, Other foods for infants and young children, Foods for special medical purpose, Foods for weight control, Foods for pregnant or lactating women O 26
  Other foods Ready-to-eat foods (Gimbap (rice rolled in dried laver), Hamburger, Sandwich) O 61
  Processing standards and Milks, Fermented milks, Processed milks, Ice creams,    
  ingredient specifications for livestock products Milk powders, Cheese, Butters O 519
  Long shelf-life foods (Retort foods) O 35
Processed foods, No mandatory labeling (Voluntary labeling) Confectioneries Chewing gum X 12
Breads or rice cakes Rice cakes X 23
Cocoa products or chocolates Processed cocoa products X 10
  Processed meat and egg products Processed meat product (Except sausages and hams), processed egg product X 93
  Fish meat products Fish cake, Half-finished fish meat product, Fish flesh, Fish meat paste, Other processed fish meat products X 135
  Bean-curds or Starch Jellies (Mook) Bean curd, Ground processed bean curd, Yuba, Processed bean curd, Starch jelly(Mook) X 37
  Teas Leached tea (Infused tea), Liquid tea, Solid tea X 87
  Coffees Roasted coffee (Roasted coffee bean or that is grinded), Instant coffee(Dried form of soluble extract of coffee) X 35
  Kimchies Kimchisok (Seasoned materials for kimchi), Chinese cabbage kimchi, Other kimchi X 21
  Salted and fermented seafoods (Jeotkal) Salted and fermented seafoods, Spiced salted and fermented seafoods, Joet, Spiced/seasoned Jeot, Sikhae X 77
  Pickles Pickled foods, Sugaring foods X 61
  Hard-boiled foods Hard-boiled agricultural product, Hard-boiled fishery product, Hard-boiled livestock product X 8
  Alcoholic beverages Takju (Korean turbid rice wine), Yakju (Korean cleared rice wine), Sake, Beer, Fruit wine, Soju (Korean Distilled Liquor), Whiskey, Brandy, General Distilled liquor, Liqueur, Other liquors X 84
  Dried Fish/Shellfish fillets Seasoned dried fish/shellfish fillet, Dried fish/shellfish fillet and other dried fish/shellfish fillet X 47
Processed foods, Other foods Processed peanut and nut products, Capsules,    
No mandatory   Starches, Processed fruitvegetable products,    
labeling   Seasoned laver, Fried foods, Honey, Imitation cheese,    
(Voluntary labeling)   Vegetable cream, Processed extract products,    
    Processed corn products for popcorn, Wheat flours,    
    Steamed rice, Uncooked foods(Saeng-Sik), Cereals, X 448
    ices, Ready-to-eat foods (Except gimbap (rice rolled    
    in dried laver), Hamburger, Sandwich), Processed    
    mushroom products, Soft-shelled turtle products,    
    Yeast foods, Enzyme foods, Pollen processed    
    products, Royal jelly processed products, Agar    
  General processed foods outside the scope of ‘Standards and specifications for each food product' Processed cereal products, Processed bean products, Processed potato products, Processed marine products, Other processed products X 144

1) ‘Processed food of raw material characteristics' category: foods usually consumed with other foods or used as ingredients for cooking.

Table 2.
Food and nutrient intake of Korean population according to the application of mandatory nutrition labeling
Food and nutrients Total Mandatory labeling No mandatory labeling
Total food intake (g/day) 1,543.8 ± 16.2 2,384.4 ± 57.6 1,159.4 ± 14.3
(100.0)1) (24.9) (75.1)
Energy (kcal/day) 2,074.0 ± 16.7 2,541.6 ± 10.1 1,532.4 ± 14.4
(100.0)1) (26.1) (73.9)
Carbohydrate (g/day) 2,313.2 ± 52.3 22,74.4 ± 51.6 2,238.8 ± 52.3
(100.0)1) (23.8) (76.2)
Protein (g/day) 22,73.7 ± 50.8 22,13.3 ± 50.3 22,60.4 ±5 0.8
(100.0)1) (18.1) (81.9)
Fat (g/day) 22,47.7 ± 50.8 22,21.0 ±5 0.4 22,26.7 ± 50.5
(100.0)1) (44.1) (55.9)
Saturated fatty acid (g/day) 22,14.3 ± 50.3 226,6.8 ± 50.2 225,7.5 ±5 0.2
(100.0)1) (47.4) (52.6)
Sodium (mg/day) 4,027.5 ± 47.4 1,470.8 ± 22.9 2,556.7 ± 38.6
(100.0)1) (36.5) (63.5)

1) Mean ± SE (%) 2) N=7,242

Table 3.
Dietary food and nutrient intakes from 4 food groups (according to food type and nutrition labeling regulation) by age groups
Age group (n=7,242)
Food group Food/Nutrient 1–5 6–11 12–18 19–29 30–49 50–64 65- p-value1)
(n=507) (n=640) (n=654) (n=670) (n=2,023) (n=1,450) (n=1,298)
Total Total food intake 1,921.7 ± 20.12) 1,242.9 ± 25.0 1,413.5 ±6 27.3 1,714.1 ± 538.8 1,738.0 ± 28.7 1,606.1 ± 526.4 1,192.4 ± 26.2 −
  (g/day) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
  Energy 1,332.6 ± 45.5 1,893.2 ± 33.9 2,219.6 ± 639.3 2,311.2 ±5 52.4 2,235.3 ± 27.6 2,033.4 ±5 24.5 1,687.9 ± 27.3 −
  (kcal/day) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
  Carbohydrate 1,202.6 ± 56.2 1,289.4 ± 55.1 1,331.6 ± 665.9 1,312.6 ±55 6.3 1,325.1 ± 53.7 1,325.7 ± 554.0 1,301.2 ±5 4.8 −
  (g/day) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
  Protein 1,545.9 ± 51.8 1,565.7 ± 51.8 1,581.5 ± 662.4 1,585.8 ± 552.4 1,580.5 ±5 1.2 1,570.8 ± 551.3 1,554.8 ±5 1.2 −
  (g/day) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
  Fat 1,537.3 ±5 2.1 1,550.9 ± 51.6 1,560.2 ± 661.6 1,564.8 ± 552.2 1,552.6 ± 51.1 1,537.7 ±55 0.9 1,523.7 ±5 0.7 −
  (g/day) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
  Saturated fatty acid 1,514.0 ±5 0.8 1,517.4 ± 50.6 1,518.8 ±66 0.5 1,519.7 ± 550.7 1,515.4 ±5 0.4 1,510.5 ± 550.3 1,556.8 ± 50.2 −
  (g/day) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
  Sodium 1,689.9 ± 85.1 2,801.3 ± 79.3 3,662.6 ± 104.8 4,405.3 ± 144.4 4,705.7 ± 88.4 4,161.5 ± 107.0 3,277.1 ± 90.9 −
  (mg/day) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)
Raw food materials Total food intake 1,389.9 ± 12.0 1,560.8 ± 16.4 1,659.3 ±6 19.0 1,694.4 ± 520.6 1,798.8 ± 13.9 1,888.8 ± 517.3 1,709.9 ± 17.2 < 0.0001
(g/day) 55(42.9 ± 51.0)ac3 ) 55(45.4 ± 50.9)ab 55(46.4 ±66 0.9)bd 55(41.9 ±55 0.9)c 55(48.1 ±5 0.5)d 55(57.0 ±55 0.6)e 55(61.3 ±5 0.7)f
  Energy 1,607.4 ± 13.6 1,926.6 ± 21.0 1,123.4 ± 628.3 1,087.2 ± 536.0 1,156.8 ± 15.6 1,240.6 ± 518.3 1,148.9 ± 19.0 < 0.0001
  (kcal/day) 55(48.1 ±5 1.0)ab 55(50.6 ± 51.0)a 55(50.4 ± 661.0)a 55(47.1 ±55 0.9)b 55(53.3 ± 50.5)c 55(62.6 ±55 0.7)d 55(69.8 ± 50.6)e
  Carbohydrate 1,111.3 ± 52.7 1,158.8 ± 53.9 1,181.7 ± 665.1 1,158.9 ± 555.1 1,188.7 ± 52.9 1,222.9 ±55 3.7 1,222.8 ±5 3.5 < 0.0001
  (g/day) 55(56.2 ±5 1.1)a 55(56.0 ± 51.1)a 55(54.2 ± 661.1)a 55(50.0 ±55 1.0)b 55(58.6 ± 50.6)c 55(68.7 ±55 0.7)d 55(75.1 ± 50.6)e
  Protein 1,522.1 ± 51.0 1,537.0 ± 51.6 1,550.7 ±66 2.2 1,553.8 ±55 2.1 1,551.2 ±5 1.1 1,547.9 ± 551.1 1,537.8 ±5 1.0 < 0.0001
  (g/day) 55(48.6 ± 51.0)a 55(54.6 ±5 1.0)b 55(57.9 ±66 0.9)c 55(58.1 ± 551.0)c 55(60.9 ± 50.5)d 55(66.3 ± 550.6)e 55(68.6 ±5 0.5)f
  Fat 1,558.0 ±5 0.4 1,514.6 ± 50.7 1,519.8 ± 660.9 1,524.3 ±55 1.7 1,520.7 ± 50.7 1,516.9 ±55 0.6 1,510.6 ±5 0.5 < 0.0001
  (g/day) 55(24.5 ±5 0.8)a 55(28.9 ± 51.0)b 55(31.5 ± 661.0)bc 55(33.6 ± 551.1)c 55(37.2 ± 50.6)d 55(43.6 ±55 0.8)e 55(43.9 ±5 0.8)e
  Saturated fatty acid 1,552.5 ±5 0.2 1,554.6 ±5 0.3 1,556.4 ±66 0.3 1,557.8 ±55 0.6 1,556.4 ±5 0.3 1,554.9 ± 550.2 1,553.0 ±5 0.2 < 0.0001
  (g/day) 55(22.2 ±5 0.9)a 55(27.4 ± 51.1)b 55(32.7 ± 661.1)c 55(35.6 ± 551.2)c 55(39.2 ±5 0.6)d 55(45.4 ±55 0.9)e 55(45.6 ± 50.9)e
  Sodium 1,147.1 ±5 7.8 1,192.0 ± 10.1 1,235.3 ± 610.8 1,285.5 ±5 17.0 1,304.7 ± 57.9 1,289.1 ± 559.4 1,220.2 ± 14.5 < 0.0001
  (mg/day) 55(10.0 ± 50.5)a 55(57.5 ± 50.3)bc 55(56.9 ± 660.3)c 55(57.0 ± 550.3)c 55(57.3 ± 50.2)c 55(58.2 ±55 0.2)b 55(57.5 ± 50.3)bc
Processed food of raw material characteristics Total food intake 1,519.8 ±5 1.5 1,537.8 ± 51.9 1,559.5 ± 663.5 1,568.1 ± 553.3 1,561.5 ± 51.6 1,549.9 ± 551.7 1,537.1 ± 52.5 < 0.0001
(g/day) 55(52.3 ± 50.2)a 55(53.1 ±5 0.1)b 55(54.0 ± 660.2)c 55(54.1 ± 550.2)c 55(53.7 ± 50.1)c 55(53.2 ±55 0.1)b 55(53.2 ±5 0.1)b
Energy 1,559.0 ± 54.1 1,117.5 ± 57.2 1,171.9 ± 668.9 1,203.2 ± 558.9 1,181.1 ± 55.1 1,134.7 ± 554.1 1,582.6 ±5 3.1 < 0.0001
  (kcal/day) 55(54.4 ±5 0.2)a 55(56.0 ± 50.3)b 55(57.2 ±66 0.3)c 55(58.4 ± 550.3)d 55(57.9 ±5 0.2)d 55(56.4 ±55 0.2)b 55(54.7 ± 50.1)a
  Carbohydrate 1,554.1 ± 50.3 1,559.3 ± 50.6 1,514.4 ± 660.9 1,517.0 ± 550.7 1,517.8 ± 50.5 1,514.4 ± 550.5 1,559.7 ± 50.4 < 0.0001
  (g/day) 55(52.0 ±5 0.1)a 55(53.2 ± 50.2)b 55(54.3 ±66 0.2)c 55(55.6 ± 550.2)d 55(55.5 ± 50.1)d 55(54.5 ± 550.1)c 55(53.2 ±5 0.1)b
  Protein 1,550.9 ± 50.1 1,551.6 ± 50.1 1,552.5 ± 660.2 1,552.8 ± 550.2 1,552.9 ± 50.1 1,552.8 ± 550.1 1,552.2 ±5 0.1 < 0.0001
  (g/day) 55(52.1 ±5 0.2)a 55(52.6 ± 50.1)b 55(53.1 ± 0.2)bc 55(53.4 ±55 0.2)cd 55(53.8 ± 50.1)de 55(54.0 ± 550.1)e 55(54.1 ± 50.2)e
  Fat 1,554.4 ±5 0.3 1,558.3 ± 50.6 1,511.7 ± 660.7 1,514.0 ± 550.8 1,511.2 ±5 0.4 1,557.7 ± 550.3 1,554.1 ± 50.2 < 0.0001
  (g/day) 55(13.0 ± 50.7)a 55(16.6 ±5 0.8)b 55(18.5 ±66 0.8)bc 55(21.4 ± 550.9)d 55(21.4 ± 50.5)d 55(19.9 ± 550.5)cd 55(17.0 ±5 0.7)b
  Saturated fatty acid 1,550.6 ±5 0.0 1,551.2 ± 50.1 1,551.7 ± 660.1 1,552.1 ± 550.1 1,551.6 ± 50.1 1,551.1 ± 550.0 1,550.6 ± 50.0 < 0.0001
  (g/day) 55(55.9 ±5 0.4)a 55(58.3 ± 50.6)b 55(10.0 ±66 0.6)c 55(12.4 ±55 0.6)de 55(12.6 ± 50.4)d 55(12.2 ±55 0.4)d 55(11.0 ± 50.5)ce
  Sodium 1,670.6 ± 31.8 1,223.3 ± 53.8 1,681.7 ±6 75.0 2,161.5 ± 115.1 2,393.6 ± 73.9 2,119.5 ± 580.0 1,590.1 ± 57.3 < 0.0001
  (mg/day) 55(39.2 ± 51.2)a 55(42.7 ± 51.0)b 55(42.7 ± 661.0)b 55(44.9 ± 551.0)b 55(47.6 ± 50.6)c 55(48.1 ± 550.8)c 55(47.1 ±5 0.8)c
Processed foods, No Mandatory labeling Total food intake (598.6 ± 57.2 (174.8 ± 58.4 (214.3 ± 59.2 2,410.8 ± 24.2 2,512.8 ± 16.3 2,446.0 ± 15.5 2,293.7 ± 12.9 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(10.6 ± 50.5)a 5(14.1 ± 50.7)b 5(15.4 ±5 0.6)b 55(21.6 ± 50.8)c 55(27.3 ±5 0.5)d 55(25.8 ±5 0.6)e 55(22.9 ± 50.7)c
Energy (145.2 ± 13.1 (232.4 ± 14.3 (252.8 ± 13.3 2,390.2 ± 25.1 2,451.5 ± 11.8 2,373.0 ± 11.7 2,236.3 ± 59.0 < 0.0001
(kcal/day) 5(10.6 ± 50.6)a 5(11.9 ± 50.6)a 5(11.5 ± 50.6)a 55(16.2 ± 50.7)b 55(19.4 ± 50.4)c 55(17.4 ± 50.4)b 55(13.4 ±5 0.4)d
Carbohydrate (520.5 ± 51.7 (533.8 ± 52.8 (533.7 ± 51.9 2,538.5 ± 51.7 2,549.0 ± 51.1 2,540.8 ± 51.4 2,531.0 ± 51.5 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(59.9 ±5 0.6)a 5(11.3 ±5 0.8)ab 5(10.3 ± 50.6)a 55(13.1 ±5 0.5)b 55(15.3 ± 50.3)c 55(12.8 ± 50.4)b 55(10.3 ±5 0.4)a
Protein (557.2 ± 51.1 (510.9 ±5 0.5 (512.5 ± 50.7 2,514.0 ±5 0.8 2,514.7 ±5 0.4 2,512.5 ± 50.4 2,558.8 ±5 0.3 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(14.7 ± 50.8)a 5(17.0 ± 50.7)bc 5(16.3 ± 50.8)ab 55(17.2 ±5 0.9)bc 55(19.7 ± 50.5)d 55(18.3 ±5 0.4)c 55(16.2 ± 50.5)ab
Fat (553.5 ±5 0.3 (555.6 ±5 0.4 (556.5 ± 50.5 2,557.2 ± 50.6 2,557.4 ±5 0.2 2,556.1 ± 50.2 2,554.2 ± 50.1 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(10.4 ±5 0.7)a5 5(11.9 ±5 0.7)ab 5(12.2 ±5 0.8)ab 55(12.9 ±5 0.8)b 55(17.2 ±5 0.4)c 55(19.2 ±5 0.6)d 55(21.0 ± 50.6)e
Saturated fatty acid (550.8 ± 50.1 (551.3 ±5 0.1 (551.5 ± 50.1 2,551.7 ±5 0.2 2,551.9 ± 50.1 2,551.6 ±5 0.1 2,551.1 ±5 0.0 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(57.0 ± 50.6)a 5(58.7 ± 50.6)b 5(59.7 ± 50.8)bc 55(10.9 ±5 0.8)c 55(16.9 ±5 0.5)d 55(19.3 ±5 0.7)e 55(21.4 ±5 0.6)f
Sodium (325.0 ± 22.6 (710.2 ± 31.0 (864.6 ± 33.2 1,057.8 ± 50.4 1,291.4 ± 40.4 1,282.0 ± 49.2 1,070.2 ± 49.7 < 0.0001
(mg/day) 5(19.2 ± 51.0)a 5(26.3 ±5 1.0)b 5(25.1 ±5 0.8)b 55(25.6 ±5 0.9)b 55(30.0 ± 50.6)c 55(33.1 ±5 0.8)d 55(34.5 ± 51.0)d
Processed foods, Mandatory labeling Total food intake (413.4 ± 15.4 (469.4 ± 15.6 (480.4 ± 16.4 2,540.8 ± 18.2 2,364.9 ± 12.5 2,221.5 ± 58.7 2,151.7 ±5 7.4 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(44.2 ± 51.2)a 5(37.4 ±5 0.9)b 5(34.2 ± 51.0)c 55(32.5 ± 51.0)c 55(20.8 ± 50.6)d 55(14.0 ± 50.5)e 55(12.6 ± 50.5)f
Energy (520.9 ± 45.5 (616.7 ± 21.8 (671.6 ± 22.9 2,630.5 ± 23.2 2,446.0 ± 15.9 2,285.1 ± 12.1 2,220.0 ± 13.1 < 0.0001
(kcal/day) 5(36.8 ±5 1.2)a 5(31.5 ± 50.8)b 5(30.9 ±5 1.0)b 55(28.3 ±5 0.9)c 55(19.4 ±5 0.5)d 55(13.6 ±5 0.5)e 55(12.0 ± 50.5)f
Carbohydrate (566.7 ± 56.4 (587.5 ± 53.2 (101.8 ± 53.9 2,598.2 ± 53.6 2,569.6 ± 52.6 2,547.6 ± 52.2 2,537.8 ± 52.5 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(31.9 ±5 1.2)a 5(29.6 ±5 0.8)a 5(31.2 ± 51.0)a 55(31.3 ± 50.9)a 55(20.6 ±5 0.6)b 55(14.0 ± 50.6)c 55(11.4 ±5 0.5)d
Protein (515.7 ±5 1.1 (516.3 ± 50.7 (515.8 ± 50.5 2,515.2 ± 50.6 2,511.7 ± 50.4 2,557.6 ±5 0.3 2,556.0 ±5 0.3 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(34.7 ± 51.3)a 5(25.8 ± 50.8)b 5(22.8 ±5 0.8)c 55(21.3 ± 50.8)c 55(15.6 ± 50.4)d 55(11.4 ± 50.5)e 55(11.0 ±5 0.5)e
Fat (521.5 ± 52.1 (522.4 ± 51.0 (522.1 ±5 0.9 2,519.2 ± 50.9 2,513.3 ± 50.6 2,557.1 ±5 0.4 2,554.8 ± 50.3 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(52.1 ±5 1.4)a 5(42.6 ±5 1.1)b 5(37.9 ±5 1.3)c 55(32.1 ±5 1.6)d 55(24.2 ±5 0.6)e 55(17.4 ±5 0.7)f 55(18.0 ± 50.9)f
Saturated fatty acid (510.0 ± 50.8 (510.3 ± 50.5 (559.2 ± 50.4 2,558.1 ±5 0.4 2,555.4 ± 50.2 2,553.0 ±5 0.1 2,552.0 ± 50.1 < 0.0001
(g/day) 5(64.9 ±5 1.3)a 5(55.6 ±5 1.2)b 5(47.6 ± 51.4)c 55(41.1 ± 51.4)d 55(31.3 ±5 0.7)e 55(23.1 ± 50.9)f 55(22.0 ±5 1.0)f
Sodium (547.1 ± 66.8 (675.8 ± 45.3 (881.0 ± 46.1 2,900.5 ± 43.9 2,716.1 ± 29.7 2,470.9 ± 30.4 2,396.6 ± 35.4 < 0.0001
(mg/day) 5(31.6 ± 51.4)a 5(23.5 ± 50.9)b 5(25.3 ± 51.1)b 55(22.6 ± 51.0)b 55(15.1 ±5 0.5)c 55(10.6 ± 50.5)d 55(10.8 ±5 0.6)d

1) p-value by ANOVA test 2) Mean ± SE (% mean) 3) Values with different alphabets are significantly different by bonferroni's test at p<0.05

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