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Jeong, Lim, Kim, Kim, and Son: Blood Pressure and Dietary Related Risk Factors Associated with High Sodium Intake Assessed with 24-hour Urine Analysis for Korean Adults
Research Article

Korean Journal of Community Nutrition 2014; 19(6): 537-549.

Published online: 31 December 2014

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2014.19.6.537

Blood Pressure and Dietary Related Risk Factors Associated with High Sodium Intake Assessed with 24-hour Urine Analysis for Korean Adults

Yeon-Seon Jeong1, Hwa-Jae Lim2, Sook-Bae Kim3, Hee Jun Kim1, Sook Mee Son1

1Department of Food Science and Nutrition, The Catholic University, Bucheon, Korea.

2Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Dong-eui University, Busan, Korea.

3Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Chonbok National University, Jeonju, Korea.

Corresponding author: Sook Mee Son. Department of Food Science and Nutrition, The Catholic University of Korea, Wonmi-gu, Gyeonggi-do 420-743, Korea. Tel: (02) 2164-4318, Fax: (02) 2164-4310, sonsm@catholic.ac.kr

Received 7 November 2014       Revised 12 December 2014       Accepted 12 December 2014

Copyright © 2014 The Korean Society of Community Nutrition

(open-access):

This is an Open-Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Objectives

This study was conducted to examine blood pressure and other characteristics of a high sodium intake group assessed with 24-hr urine analysis and the dietary factors related to the risk of high sodium intake among Korean adults.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted with adults aged 20-59 years. Subjects who completed 24-hr urine collection (N = 205) were divided into 3 groups (tertile) according to the sodium intake estimated with 24-hour urine analysis. We compared the blood pressure, BMI and dietary related factors of the 3 groups (low, medium, high sodium intake group) with General Linear Model (GLM) and Duncan's multiple range test (p < 0.05). The risk factors related to high sodium intake were assessed with odds ratio (p < 0.05).

Results

The sodium intake (mg/day) of the 3 groups were 3359.8 ± 627.9, 4900.3 ± 395.1 and 6770.6 ± 873.9, respectively, corresponding to daily salt intake (g/day) 8.5, 12.4 and 17.2, respectively. High sodium group showed significantly elevated age, BMI and systolic/diastolic blood pressure. Being male gender was associated with significantly increased risk of sodium intake (OR = 1.972; 95%CI: 1.083-3.593). The other factors related to high sodium intake were higher BMI (≥ 25) (OR = 2.619; 95% CI: 1.368-5.015), current alcohol consumption (OR = 1.943; 95%CI: 1.060-3.564), and having salty soybean paste with salt percentage > 14% (OR = 3.99; 95% CI: 1.404-6.841). The dietary attitude related to increased risk of high sodium intake included 'enjoy dried fish and salted mackerel' (p < 0.001) and 'eat all broth of soup, stew or noodle' (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Because high sodium intake was associated with higher blood pressure, nutrition education should focus on alcohol consumption, emphasis on related dietary factors such as using low salt soybean paste, improvements in the habit of eating dried fish and salted mackerel or eating all broth of soup, stew or noodle.

Keywords: high sodium intake, blood pressure, dietary factors

Figures and Tables

Table 1
Physical characteristics and life styles of the study subjects according to the sodium intake
kjcn-19-537-i001

1) Low: Na < 4231.7 mg, Medium: 4231.7 ≤ Na < 5573.9 mg, High: Na ≥ 5573.9 mg

2) Mean ±SD

3) Hypertension: Systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg

ab: Means not sharing the same superscript are significantly different at p < 0.05 by Duncan's multiple range test

*: p < 0.05, **: p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001 by one-way GLM

Table 2
Urine volume and urinary Na, K, Ca, Mg, Creatine excretion
kjcn-19-537-i002

1) Low: Na < 4231.7 mg, Medium: 4231.7 ≤ Na < 5573.9 mg, High: Na ≥ 5573.9 mg

2) Mean ±SD

3) Sodium intake per day was assessed with the assumption that 82% of dietary sodium was excreted in 24-hr urine

ab: Means not sharing the same superscript are significantly different at p<0.05 by Duncan's multiple range test

**: p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001 by one-way GLM

Table 3
Salt percentages of Kimchi and soybean paste
kjcn-19-537-i003

1) Low: Na < 4231.7 mg, Medium: 4231.7 ≤ Na < 5573.9 mg, High: Na ≥ 5573.9 mg

2) Mean ±SD

ab: Means not sharing the same superscript are significantly different at p < 0.05 by Duncan's multiple range test

*: p < 0.05 by one-way GLM

Table 4
Sodium intakes of each dish item by Dish Frequency Questionnaire
kjcn-19-537-i004

1) Low: Na < 4231.7 mg, Medium: 4231.7 ≤ Na < 5573.9 mg, High: Na ≥ 5573.9 mg

2) Mean ±SD

ab: Means not sharing the same superscript are significantly different at p < 0.05 by Duncan's multiple range test

*: p < 0.05, **: p < 0.01 by one-way GLM

Table 5
Sodium intakes of each food group by Dish Frequency Questionnaire
kjcn-19-537-i005

1) Low: Na < 4231.7 mg, Medium: 4231.7 ≤ Na < 5573.9 mg, High: Na ≥ 5573.9 mg

2) Mean ±SD

ab: Means not sharing the same superscript are significantly different at p < 0.05 by Duncan's multiple range test

*: p < 0.05, **: p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001 by one-way GLM

Table 6
Odds ratios(ORs) and 95% confidence intervals for high sodium intake according to the selected factors
kjcn-19-537-i006

1) High sodium intake group: over 67percentile with sodium intake higher than 5573.9 mg/day

*: p < 0.05, **: p < 0.01

Table 7
Odds ratios (ORs) for high sodium intake according to dietary attitude or dietary behaviors
kjcn-19-537-i007

1) High sodium intake group: over 67percentile with sodium intake higher than 5573.9 mg/day

*: p < 0.05, ***: p < 0.001

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