초록
Abstract
REFERENCES
Table 1
Detection target* | Description | Test method | Positive rate (prevalence) |
---|---|---|---|
a. Pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in medically actionable genes | Genetic factors involving Mendelian diseases [30], for which well-established medical evidence supporting feasible medical preventive management, are identified. | Sanger sequencing, NGS (targeted, exome) | ~4% [31] |
b. Pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants in monogenic Mendelian genes | Pathogenic variants of Mendelian diseases with moderate to high penetrance, for which medical preventive management and efficacy lack substantial evidence. Carrier testing also falls into this category, but in Korea there is no active social consensus on it. | Sanger sequencing, NGS (targeted panel, exome), real-time PCR (when the target number is limited) | Ethnicity-dependent |
c. Genetic risk factors | Although possessing low penetrance, the identification of genetic factors such as APOE4 for Alzheimer’s disease, HLA-B27 for ankylosing spondylitis, and RNF213 R4810K for Moyamoya disease increase the respective disease risks, aiding clinical diagnosis. However, in Korea, APOE and HLA-B27 testing are restricted by the Law on Bioethics and Safety, and permitted only when the attending physician suspects the related condition. | Sanger sequencing, real-time PCR, NGS | Ethnicity-dependent |
d. Pharmacogenetic variants | To confirm the presence of genetic factors involved in an individual’s drug metabolism/ response to drugs; helpful for adjusting therapeutic drug dosages or predicting associated side effects for alternative drug therapy. Drug labels are categorized based on the clinical evidence (https://www.pharmgkb.org/labelAnnotations). | Sanger sequencing, real-time PCR, NGS | Everyone could obtain results regarding their individual pharmacogenetic type. |
e. Polygenic risk scores | To predict genetic risk from multiple susceptible loci, assuming that low penetrance loci interact either with each other or the environment in complex diseases, affecting their occurrence. | SNP arrays, real-time PCR (when the target number is limited) | Everyone could obtain results on their polygenic risk values. |
*Those categories from a previous study [6] were adapted to the Korean context. In Korea, genetic tests corresponding to detection target groups a–d in Table 1, even if performed on healthy individuals, are classified as of Category 1, that is, “Genetic testing for diagnosis and treatment of diseases,” under Article 49-2 of the Enforcement Rules of the Bioethics and Safety Act, depending on whether the provided test results enable subsequent medical decisions and judgments (including the assessment of result accuracy). Besides, tests under group e in Table 1 are classified either as of Category 2, that is, “Genetic testing for disease prediction,” or Category 3, that is, “Genetic testing for nutrition, lifestyle, and physical characteristics”.
Table 2
Single-gene disease | Complex disease | |
---|---|---|
Approach | Family-based studies | Case-control-based GWAS study |
Inheritance pattern | Segregation based on Mendelian inheritance | Aggregated and non-Mendelian inheritance |
Genetic cause | Gene(s): | Multiple susceptible loci: |
·Mainly coding sequence variants affecting protein function | ·Mainly non-coding sequence variants affecting regulatory function | |
·Rare variants that may be located in the entire coding sequence region. | ·Common variants (generally≥1% minor allele frequency, also known as SNP) | |
Test method | Genetic tests for untargeted variants (i.e., no hypothesis or candidates considered) | Genetic tests for targeted variants: SNP array (mainly) or real-time PCR (when the target number is limited) |
·Gene-level detection: | ||
-SNV/indel detection: NGS, Sanger sequencing | ||
-CNV detection: MLPA, quantitative PCR | ||
·Multiple genes or chromosome-level detection: CMA, karyotyping | ||
Interpretation of test results | Clinical interpretation according to the ACMG/AMP guidelines [8] and/or ClinGen specifications (https://www.clinicalgenome.org/) | Estimation based on PRS |
Reported results | When genetic variants causing a disease are identified, the report should include the causative variants, their classification, and the scientific and medical evidence interpreting those variants as pathogenic/likely pathogenic. | The examinee’s relative PRS ranking compared to the distribution of PRS in the entire population is calculated. The examinee’s placement within the low, average, or high-risk categories is determined based on thresholds specified by the genetic testing institution. An explanation for the examinee’s placement within these categories should be provided. |
*We referenced our previous report [7].
Abbreviations: ACMG/AMP, American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the Association for Molecular Pathology; CMA, chromosomal microarray; CNV, copy number variation; GWAS, genome-wide association study; MLPA, multiplex ligation dependent probe amplification; NGS, next-generation sequencing; SNP, single nucleotide polymorphism; SNV, single nucleotide variation; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; PRS, polygenic risk score.