Health professional learners not only need clinical knowledge and skills, but also must learn to access, analyse, and apply new information. Developing the capability to evaluate their own performance enables learners to respond effectively to challenges in their current or future practice. Assessment and feedback also play an important role in developing both learner knowledge and evaluative judgement.

Evaluative judgement has been defined as “the ability to critically assess a performance in relation to a predefined but not necessarily explicit standard, which entails a complex process of reflection. It has an internal application, in the form of self-evaluation, and an external application, in making decisions about the quality of others’ work” (p. 661) [1]. For learners to develop evaluative judgement, they need to be assisted in developing an understanding of assessments and feedback literacy. Deeley and Bovill [2] suggested that assessment literacy involves learners becoming more knowledgeable in the language not only of their discipline of study, but of the assessments. Feedback literacy means that students comprehend what feedback is and how they can manage it, coupled with both the competency and attitude to obtain value from the feedback, while understanding the roles of students and teachers that contribute to these processes [3].

Assessments and feedback are typically the mainstay of the academic teaching staff who are expected to be able to provide students with credible feedback on their assessments. Learners’ skills also need to be developed to allow them to identify where changes to their practice are required, and how to undertake those changes. To facilitate the transition from learner to evaluator, alternatives to traditional faculty-marked assessments should be considered.

Ideally, health professional curricula should be underpinned by the principles of student-centred and self-directed learning, with assessment tasks designed to enable learners to reflect on and improve their performance. Feedback on these tasks should be obtained from multiple sources, as single-source feedback may not always capture all aspects of learners’ performance on an assessment. Self-assessment, peer assessment, and near-peer (NP) assessment may provide these sources [4]. Calibration of self-assessment may be facilitated through feedback from multiple sources and may also help develop learners’ evaluative judgement capability.

Peer assessment can be described as a process where students evaluate or are evaluated by their peers, consistent with the goals of selfdirected and collaborative learning [5]. Peer assessment may also help students build collaborative relationships and facilitate supportive reflections about their strengths and weaknesses. NP teaching is a valuable addition to student learning across a range of subject areas in health professions education [6]. NP teaching may be defined as instruction delivered by a more senior learner who is not a qualified professional. The benefits of NP teaching are thought to be related to the concepts of cognitive congruence and social congruence [6,7].

A body of health professions education literature suggests that peer assessments have value in conjunction with faculty grading and feedback for both academic and workplace learning and assessments [1,4,8]. Research has also explored the relationship between the marks provided by each of these groups. Studies have suggested that the correlation between peer and faculty marks is in the range of 0.29 to 0.69 [9-11], and peer assessment appears to be more closely aligned with faculty marking than self-assessment [11,12]. The literature with respect to NP assessment is lacking, however, and no studies have incorporated grades assigned from all 4 perspectives. The current study explored the relationships among self, peer, NP, and faculty assessments of students’ history-taking and communication skills using a simulated peer patient. Attitudes towards the extent to which peer and NP marks should contribute to the overall assessment grade were also explored.

This study explored relationships among markers of an assessment and students’ perceptions of multiple sources of marking for a single assessment. Self and peer assessment grades correlated moderately with faculty grades, suggesting that there was a shared understanding of the assessment standard for the task. This finding is consistent with the literature identifying positive correlations between faculty and peer grading in medicine [1,11], providing support for this notion of shared understanding. This assertion is supported by the weak correlation between the peer and faculty marks when compared with the NP marks. The NP markers had not completed the same assessment task during their studies; however, they undertook training to mark the current assessment task. The shared understanding and experience of the assessment task appeared to be valuable, supporting the need for training sessions in which all marker groups are in one room at the same time. This shared understanding may have also emerged through the known overestimation of self-assessment grades in standardized patient tasks [15]. Furthermore, the highest mean group value for the task was demonstrated in the selfassessment group, consistent with other studies [12]. This may also be a reflection of the students’ higher self-efficacy [11], but this possibility requires exploration.

This study also explored students’ perceptions of both NP and peer assessment. Perceptions of peer and NP marking varied, with NP assessment favoured over peer assessment. The majority of the participants agreed that NP assessment could contribute to up to 25% of a grade, but that peer assessment should not contribute to grades. Grades for an assessment appear to be a factor contributing to the acceptability of a particular group contributing to the total mark for an assessment. This is positive with respect to self-assessment, as students should be able to trust in, and fine-tune, their selfassessment capacity, using the faculty marks to calibrate their thinking. It would be valuable to explore changes in self-assessment capacity over time [11] and across different assessments. Support for this assertion, and the use of peer assessment more broadly, is provided by the largely similar correlation coefficient between the faculty and peer marks [10]. Although the relationship between the sets of marks was acceptably close, students perceived that peer marks should not contribute to the total mark for the assessment. Further work to unpack participants’ apprehensions would be useful and could inform future research.

Students reported that peer assessments should not contribute to their grade for the assessed task, despite the training offered. Work by van Zundert et al. [5] has suggested that training positively influences student attitudes towards peer assessment, although that review was not focused on health students. Student participants in the current study agreed their peers offered value with respect to learning and skill improvements, and increased their sense of participation and interaction with peers. Where significant differences between peer and NP assessment were identified, these were in favour of NP assessment, with medium to large effect sizes. Students perceived NP assessment to be a fair way to assess the task and also to provide a small contribution to the overall mark for the assessment.

The involvement of NP assessors in assessment tasks appears to have some value, and students agreed that the NP mark could contribute a small percentage to the overall grade. It may be that participating as a NP assessor offers them a chance to foster their assessment and feedback literacy [7]. NP assessment may also provide a sustainable approach to assessing learner work, benefitting all stakeholders.

Interestingly, males were more likely to perceive NP assessment as motivational, with a positive influence on their sense of participation. These differences demonstrated large effect sizes, suggesting that some unidentified factors may influence females’ less positive perceptions of the value of this approach. This possibility requires further investigation and is an interesting avenue for further research.

Although the literature suggests there is perceived value in peer assessment [5], this was only borne out to some extent in the current study. This result suggests that more work to highlight the value of peer assessment may be necessary.