The term “anatomy” originates from the Greek “anatomē,” or dissection, and concerns the study of structural organization of organisms and their parts. The production of accurate anatomical images has challenged and allured scientific minds seeking to understand human anatomy, physiology, and disease [1]. Human curiosity has no bounds and the journey of anatomy is an example. This review is a historical journey of the evolution of anatomy from antiquity to present and toward the future. The history of medical education and anatomy involves the evolution of societies and their approach to illness and treating disease from ancient times to the present.

Reports suggest the study of anatomy began as early as 1600 BC in Greece with the examination of sacrificial human bodies. A rare papyrus, popularly called the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (named after the archeologist who bought it), identifies the heart and its vessels, the liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus, and bladder, and describes blood vessels emanating from the heart [2]. An Egyptian treatise, the Ebers Papyrus (ca. 1550 BC), features prescriptions, drugs, and compounding. It also identifies the heart as the center of the blood supply and vessels that carry fluids (Fig. 1) [3]. Systematic anatomical study started with the work of Greek scientists, including Alcmaeon (ca. 500 BC), Empedocles (ca. 490–430 BC) and Hippocrates (ca. 460–377 BC). Alcmaeon performed human dissections in his research in an attempt to discover the source of human intelligence. Hippocrates was the first to classify or categorize the fluids in the human body. In the next centuries, Aristotle (ca. 384–322 BC), Praxagoras, and several contemporaries produced a more descriptive anatomical system based on animal dissection. The Greek physicians introduced concepts of medical diagnosis, prognosis, and medical ethics [14].

Indian medicine, or Ayurvedic medicine, is considered the oldest system of traditional medicine. Indian medical scholars began practicing medicine ca. 1200 BC. The manuscript Atharvaveda from ca. 700 to 600 BC refers to the use of herbs to treat ailments. The Charakasamhitā, composed by Charaka, and the Suśrutasamhitā, by Sushruta, describe disease treatment and early surgery. Suśrutasamhitā features scientific classifications of medicine, with 184 chapters and 8 branches, of which “kāyācikitsā” (internal medicine) and “śalyacikitsā” (surgery including anatomy) are notable. Sushruta also wrote about different types of surgery and surgical equipment. Anatomy and embryology were part of surgical education, with knowledge passed down by ink on palm leaf manuscripts or by memory - “shruti” (the remembered) [567].

Chinese medicine also developed traditional medicine to treat diseases. Huangdi Neijing is a classical Chinese medicine text written ca. 500–300 BC which forms the basis of traditional Chinese medicine [1]. This book clearly explains that physiological processes of the body follow natural rules and that the disease state can be influenced by natural ageing processes and the environment.

Herophilus (335–280 BC) performed the first systematic vivisections and is widely acknowledged as the “father of anatomy.” Herophilus and Erasistratus (304–250 BC) described the brain as the center of the nervous system, with significant mentions of brain ventricles. Herophilus provided careful accounts of several organs and emphasized the curative powers of drugs, dietetics, and gymnastics [89]. Galen's (ca. 130–200 BC) major contribution was his work on the circulatory system. He was the first to recognize the differences between venous (dark) and arterial (bright) blood. His anatomical experiments on animal models led to an improved understanding of the circulatory system, nervous system, and respiratory system. Galen also wrote treatises on human anatomy, which were presented simply as observations on papyrus or paper without detailed diagrammatic representation [1011]. The ancient Romans created a range of surgical tools, including bone levers, surgical shears, and speculums, which are dated back as early as the first century AD. These tools would have also been used to visualize internal structures for studying anatomy and to perform some surgical techniques [12]. During the next few centuries, the Greek anatomical treatises were lost. Though some were translated later to other languages like Latin, old English, and Arabic. Some works were retained in Byzantium and the Islamic world and contained only rudiments of the original findings [2].

During the Roman rule of the Byzantine Empire, Byzantine physicians composed the first medical textbooks developed from and adding to the knowledge of their Greek and Roman predecessors. They used text and diagrams to elucidate anatomy. Paul of Aegina (625–690) wrote The Medical Compendium in Seven Books and is considered the “father of our medical books.” Meanwhile, the Sassanid Empire in Persia established the first medical centers [13]. Islamic medicine came into prominence as they compiled their own medical knowledge, developed by physicians like Muhammad Ibn Z. Al razi and Ibn Sina based on Arabic translations of Galen's work [14].

The fall of Rome, disease, and socioeconomic turmoil led to widespread apathy towards the study of medicine and anatomy. During the early middle ages, medicine passed into the hands of the Christian church and Arab scholars. During this time religious philosophy overshadowed scientific knowledge and study. The main contributions of this period were extensive translations of Greek texts into Latin, Arabic, and a variety of other languages [15].

With the rebirth of classicism in the Renaissance, medical science, anatomy and medical teaching regained prominence in Europe. Mondino de Luzzi (ca. 1270–1326) founded the first European medical school in Italy in 1235 by incorporating the systematic study of anatomy and dissection into a medical curriculum [16]. The main mediums for portraying anatomical representations were hand drawings on paper and woodcut engraving. The 15th century saw a greater involvement of artists in developing the scientific knowledge and depiction of the human body, including the anatomical paintings by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) (Fig. 2). Medical interest was so high in the Renaissance that many famous artists like Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Rembrandt (1606–1669) also produced anatomical drawings (Fig. 3). Realism a dominant Renaissance artistic style that depended more on perspective to create an illusion of space and depth was also inspired by the growing interest of artists in anatomy. Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) integrated systematic text with artistic drawings in his influential De humani corporis fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body), for which he is considered the “father of modern human anatomy” [17] (Fig. 4). Vesalius also practiced hands on teaching methods based on dissecting corpses.

The field of anatomy reached new heights with the contributions of scientists like Realdo Colombo (1515–1559), William Harvey (1578–1657), and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) [18]. New artistic methods of copperplate engraving, copper plate etching and lithography improved the speed and accuracy of anatomical reproductions. Anatomy was recognized as a unique discipline for its integration of science, art, and technology [19].

The advent of the printing press in the 15th to 17th century helped to better convey anatomy by translating observation to drawing. This was particularly important because the rapid growth of medical schools in the 16th century led to a pressing demand for cadavers. In the absence of available cadavers, anatomical drawings had to serve as substitute teaching tools.

Scientists discovered new techniques in studying and portraying anatomy. Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694) founded microscopic anatomy, the use of magnification to study structures that are invisible to the naked eye [20]. His discoveries formed the basis of the modern disciplines of cytology, cellular anatomy, and histology. Gaetano Zumbo (1656–1701) developed anatomical wax modeling techniques by the end of the 17th century, creating the first method of 3D anatomical modeling [21]. Tissues and organs were dehydrated and put in wax blocks for long term preservation. This would later form the basis of histology, the microscopic analysis of thin slices or sections of these blocks. Improved methods for the storage and preservation of dissected specimens, including drying and wax injection, allowed for more detailed study, which would extend not only to histology but new fields of pathology and developmental biology [22].

During the late 17th to the early 19th century, scientists like [23], and Xavier Bichat developed the fields of morbid anatomy and pathology. Morgagni published observations of over 640 dissections, covering diseases over the entire human body, in his seminal work, De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per Anatomen Indagatis (The Seats and Causes of Diseases Investigated by Anatomy) [1]. Baillie published the first English book on pathology, Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body, in which he records systematic observations of organs in various disease states. Bichat studied the structure of diseased organs and in his Treatise on Membranes, distinguished over twenty types of tissues that form organs [2]. These studies served to demonstrate the importance of “pathological anatomy” in understand disease and treatment [23].

Technological innovations in the past two decades have allowed for significant advances in anatomical research. Discoveries of photography, relief halftone, and color photography revolutionized the illustration and education of anatomy. Scientists were starting on a quest to image the human body in a less invasive way. The discovery of X-ray machines by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895 finally allowed physicians to visualize the inside of a human body without dissection [24]. In 1930 Felix Bloch discovered the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine, in which magnetic fields and radio waves cause atoms to give off tiny radio signals to generate images of the organs in the body. Godfrey Hounsfield and Allan Cormack's discovery of computed tomography (CT) in 1972 enabled researchers to study organs in unprecedented detail [25] (Fig. 5). An effort to introduce three-dimensional (3D) anatomical representation in anatomy teaching using clay/plastic models were introduced. These 3D models lacked accuracy and were difficult to manipulate, as they were hand or casted with clay, plaster of paris or plastic molded. However, technology would soon build off of this concept to revolutionize anatomy.

Medical and anatomical education is transitioning from black board drawings, text book diagrams, and cadaveric dissection to cutting edge technology in digital 3D anatomy and virtual reality. The complexity and dimension of the human body, coupled with the incredible volume of information in medicine, makes the learning process challenging. Physicians and medical students have reported a disconnect between the cadavers they studied in anatomy classes and the CT scans, radiographs, ultrasound and MRI scans they use in the hospital as patient data [2627]. These new technologies seek to bridge the gap between education and practice. One of the drawbacks with traditional cadaveric dissection is that a student can only reference the cadaver in the anatomy lab. The advantage of using a virtual system is that student can view 3D structures repeatedly, remotely and throughout their training. Many virtual models are available on PCs and smartphones. Complete Anatomy by 3D4Medical and 3D Atlas by Anatomy Learning are free smartphone apps that provide virtual anatomical models.

As our understanding of anatomy and our ability to study structure in detail has evolved, so have the goals of medical research. Current initiatives in anatomy focus on development, evolution, physiology, pathology, and regenerative medicine. One of the technological challenges that the field was facing is the generation of accurate 3D images at the tissue/ cellular level for all the organ systems in a human body.