Journal List > Dement Neurocogn Disord > v.11(3) > 1120808

Pyun, Kang, Park, Kim, Park, and Han: A Comparison of the Prospective Memory among College Students, Normal Elderly, and Parkinson's Disease Patients

Abstract

Background

This study was conducted to examine the effects of normal aging and cerebral pathology on the prospective memory and the relationships between the prospective memory and frontal lobe functions.

Methods

The subjects were 30 college students, 30 normal elderly, and 30 Parkinson's disease patients. There was no significant difference in the mean age or education level between the normal elderly and Parkinson's disease patients. The Cambridge Prospective Memory Test and the Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire were administered to evaluate the prospective memory. The Seoul Verbal Learning Test and Rey Complex Figure Test were given to assess the verbal and visual episodic memories. The subjects also took the Sorting Test, the Korean-Color Word Stroop Test, and the Iowa Gambling Task to assess the frontal lobe functions.

Results

The results showed that the prospective memory declines with aging and pathological process. The normal elderly showed significantly lower scores on the time-based prospective memory than the event-based prospective memory, although the college students and Parkinson's disease patients did not show any differences between them. Many significant correlations were found between the prospective memory tests and frontal lobe tests in the normal elderly and Parkinson's disease patients, although only a few correlations were found in the college students.

Conclusions

These quantitative and qualitative changes in the prospective memory by aging and frontal lobe dysfunction would support the de-differentiation hypothesis of aging.

Figures and Tables

Table 1
Demographic characteristics and the K-MMSE score of the college students, normal elderly, and PD patients
dnd-11-95-i001

*p<0.01; p<0.001.

K-MMSE, Korean-Mini Mental State Examination; PD, Parkinson's Disease Patients.

Table 2
Prospective memory and retrospective (episodic) memory test results of the college students, normal elderly, and PD patients
dnd-11-95-i002

*p<0.01; p<0.001

Cam: Event, Cambridge Prospective Memory Test: Event-based task; Cam: Time, CAMPROMPT: Time-based task; Cam: Total, CAMPROMPT: Event-based & Time-based task; PRMQ: PM, Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire: Prospective memory component; PRMQ: RM, PRMQ: Retrospective memory component; SVLT: IR, Seoul Verbal Learning Test: Immediate Recall; SVLT: DR, SVLT: Delayed Recall; SVLT: Rec, SVLT: Recognition; RCFT: IR, Rey Complex Figure Test: Immediate Recall; RCFT: DR, RCFT: Delayed Recall; RCFT: Rec, RCFT: Recognition.

Table 3
Correlations between prospective and retrospective (episodic) memory tests among the college students, normal elderly, and PD patients
dnd-11-95-i003

*p<0.05; p<0.01.

Time, Cambridge Prospective Memory Test: Time-based task; Event, CAMPROMPT: Event-based task; Total, CAMPROMPT: Event-based & Time-based task; SVLT: IR, Seoul Verbal Learning Test: Immediate Recall; SVLT: DR, SVLT: Delayed Recall; SVLT: Rec, SVLT: Recognition; RCFT: IR, Rey Complex Figure Test: Immediate Recall; RCFT: DR, RCFT: Delayed Recall; RCFT: Rec, RCFT: Recognition.

Table 4
The results of frontal lobe function tests in the college students, normal elderly, and PD patients
dnd-11-95-i004

*p<0.001.

DKEFS, Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System; Sorting: Sort, Sorting test # of sort; Sorting: Score, Sorting test: Score; RCFT: Copy, Rey Complex Figure Test: Copy score; K-CWST, Korean-Color Word Stroop Test; C: Correct, Color reading: # of Correct; C: Errors, Color reading: # of errors; C: RT, Color reading: Reaction time; IGT: C+D, Iowa Gambling Task: C+D.

Table 5
Correlations between prospective memory and frontal lobe function tests among the college students, normal elderly, and PD patients
dnd-11-95-i005

*p<0.05; p<0.01.

Time, Cambridge Prospective Memory Test: Time-based task; Event, CAMPROMPT: Event-based task; Total, CAMPROMPT: Event-based & Time-based task; DKEFS, Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System; Sorting: Sort, Sorting test # of sort; Sorting: Score, Sorting test: Score; RCFT: Copy, Rey Complex Figure Test: Copy score; K-CWST, Korean-Color Word Stroop Test; C: Correct, Color reading: # of Correct; C: Errors, Color reading: # of errors; C: RT, Color reading: Reaction time; IGT: C+D, Iowa Gambling Task: C+D.

References

1. Cohen G. Memory in the Real World. 1996. 2nd ed. Hove UK: Psychology Press.
2. Craik FM. Klix F, Hagendorf H, editors. A functional account of age differences in memory. Human Memory and Cognitive Capabilities: Mechanisms and Performances. 1986. North Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers;409–422.
3. Cockburn J, Smith PT. Gruneberg MM, Morris E, Sykes RN, editors. Effects of age and intelligence on everyday memory tasks. Pratical Aspects of Memory: Current research and issue. 1988. Chichester: Wiley;132–136.
crossref
4. Cockburn J, Smith PT. The relative influence of intelligence and age on everyday memory. J Gerontol. 1991. 46:P31–P36.
crossref
5. Maylor EA, Smith G, Della Sala S, Logie RH. Prospective and retrospective memory in normal aging and dementia: An experimental study. Mem Cognit. 2002. 30:871–884.
crossref
6. McDaniel MA, Enistein GO, Jacoby LL. Craik FIM, Salthouse TA, editors. New consideration in aging and memory. The Handbook of Aging and Cognition. 2008. New York: psychology press;251–310.
7. Scullin MK, Bugg JM, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO. Prospective memory and aging: Preserved spontaneous retrieval, but impaired deactivation, in older adults. Mem Cognit. 2011. 39:1232–1240.
8. Cherry KE, LeCompte DC. Age and individual differences influence prospective memory. Psychol Aging. 1999. 14:60–76.
9. Einstein GO, McDaniel MA. Normal aging and prospective memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 1990. 16:717–726.
10. Kliegel M, McDaniel MA, Einstein GO. Plan formation, retention, and execution in prospective memory: A new approach and age-related effects. Mem Cognit. 2000. 28:1041–1049.
11. Shallice T, Burgess PW. Deficits in strategy application following frontal lobe damage in man. Brain. 1991. 114:727–741.
12. Kerns KA, Price KJ. An investigation of prospective memory in children with ADHD. Child Neuropsychol. 2001. 7:162–171.
13. Martin MA, Kliegel M, McDaniel MA. The involvement of executive functions in prospective memory performance of adults. Int J Psychol. 2003. 38:195–206.
14. Einstein GO, McDaniel MA, Richardson SL, Guynn MJ, Cunfer AR. Aging and prospective memory: Examining the influences of self-initiated retrieval processes. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 1995. 21:996–1007.
15. Park DC, Morrell R, Hertzog C, Kidder D, Mayhor C. Effects of age on event-based and time-based prospective memory. Psychol Aging. 1997. 12:314–327.
16. Palmer HM, McDonald S. The role of frontal and temporal lobe processes in prospective remembering. Brain Cognit. 2000. 44:103–107.
17. Okuda J, Fujii T, Yamadori A, Kawashima R, Tsukiura T. Participation of the prefrontal cortices in prospective memory: Evidence from a PET study in humans. Neurosci Lett. 1998. 253:127–130.
18. Okuda J, Fujii T, Ohtake H, Tsukiura T, Yamadori A, Frith CD, et al. Differential involvement of regions of rostral prefrontal (Brodman area 10) in time- and event-based prospective memory. Int J Psychophysiol. 2007. 64:233–246.
19. Burgess PW, Quayle A, Frith CD. Brain regions involved in prospective memory as determined by positron emission tomography. Neuropsychologia. 2001. 39:545–555.
20. Burgess PW, Scott SK, Frith CD. The role of the rostral frontal cortex (area 10) in prospective memory: A lateral versus medial dissociation. Neuropsychologia. 2003. 41:906–918.
21. Simons JS, Scholvinck ML, Gilbert SJ, Frith CD, Burgess PW. Differential components of prospective memory? Evidence from fMRI. Neuropsychologia. 2006. 44:1388–1397.
22. Yoo GH, Seo CW, Kim CB. The effect of event-based prospective memory on the performance of ongoing tasks: an fMRI study. Korean J Exp Psychol. 2005. 17:35–49.
23. Fuster JM. The Prefrontal Cortex. 1989. New York: Raven.
24. Luria AR. Higher Cortical Functions in Man. 1966. New York: Basic Book.
25. Moscovitch M, Winocur G. Craik FIM, Salihouse TA, editors. The Neuropsychology of memory and aging. The Handbook of Aging and Cognition. 1992. Hillsdale NJ: Erbaum;315–372.
26. Weinberger NM, Javid R, Lepan B. Long-term retention of learning-induced receptive-field plasticity in the auditory cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1993. 90:2394–2398.
27. Cools R, Baker RA, Sahakian BJ, Robbins TW. Enhanced or impaired cognitive function in Parkinson's disease as a function of dopaminergic medication and task demands. Cereb Cortex. 2001. 11:1136–1143.
crossref
28. Taylor AE, Saint-Cyr JA, Lang AE. Frontal lobe dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. The cortical focus of neostriatal outflow. Brain. 1986. 109:845–883.
crossref
29. Katai S, Maruyama T, Hashimoto T, Ikeda S. Event based and time based prospective memory in Parkinson's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003. 74:704–709.
crossref
30. Costa A, Peppe A, Caltagirone C, Carlesimo GA. Prospective memory impairment in individuals with Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychology. 2008. 22:283–292.
crossref
31. Raskin SA, Woods SP, Poquette AJ, McTaggart AB, Sethna J, Williams RC, et al. A differential deficits time-versus event-based prospective memory in Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychology. 2011. 25:201–209.
crossref
32. Foster ER, McDaniel MA, Repovs G, Hershey T. Prospective memory in Parkinson's disease across laboratory and self-reported everyday performance. Neuropsychology. 2009. 23:347–358.
crossref
33. Smith SJ, Souchay C, Moulin CJ. Metamemory and prospective memory in Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychology. 2011. 25:734–740.
crossref
34. Wilson B, Emslie H, Foley J, Shiel A, Watson P, Hawkins K, et al. The Cambridge Prospective Memory Test (CAMPROMPT). 2005. London: Harcourt Assessment.
crossref
35. Christensen KJ, Multhaup KS, Nordstrom S, Voss K. A cognitive battery for dementia: Development and measurement characteristics. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1991. 3:168–174.
crossref
36. Hughes AJ, Daniel SE, Kilford L, Lees AJ. Accuracy of the clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease: A clinico-pathological study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1992. 55:181–184.
crossref
37. Hoehn MM, Yahr MD. Parkinsonism: Onset, progression and mortality. Neurology. 1967. 17:427–480.
crossref
38. Choi SH, Na DL, Lee BH, Hahm DS, Jeong JH, Yoon SJ, et al. Estimating the validity of the Korean Version of Expanded Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) Scale. J Korean Neurol Assoc. 2001. 19:585–591.
crossref
39. Smith JR, Maylor EA, Della Sala S, Logie RH. The Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire (PRMQ): Normative data and latent structure in a large non-clinical sample. Memory. 2003. 11:261–275.
40. Kang Y, Na DL. Seoul Neuropsychological Screening Battery (SNSB). 2003. Incheon: Human Brain Research & Consulting.
41. Meyers JE, Meyers KR. Rey Complex Figure Test and recognition trial: Professional manual. 1995. Lutz FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
42. Delis DC, Kaplan E, Kramer JH. Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) Technical Manual. 2001. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.
crossref
43. Lee JH, Kang Y, Na DL. Efficiencies of stroop interference indexes in healthy older adults and dementia patients. Korean J Clin Psychol. 2000. 19:807–818.
crossref
44. Lezak MD, Howieson DB, Loring DW. Neuropsychological Assessment. 2004. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.
crossref
45. Bechara A. Iowa Gambling Task Professional Manual. 2004. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
crossref
46. Kang Y, Na DL, Hahn SH. A validity study on the Korean Mini-Mental State Examination (K-MMSE) in dementia patients. J Korean Neurol Assoc. 1997. 15:300–308.
crossref
47. Harrington DL, Haaland KY, Knight RT. Cortical networks underlying mechanisms of time perception. J Neurosci. 1998. 18:1085–1095.
crossref
48. den Ouden HE, Frith U, Blakemore SJ. Thinking about intentions. NeuroImage. 2005. 28:787–796.
49. Lie CH, Specht K, Marshall JC, Fink GR. Using fMRI to decompose the neural processes underlying the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. NeuroImage. 2006. 30:1038–1049.
50. Matsui H, Nishinaka K, Oda M, Hara N, Komatsu K, Kubori T, et al. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and brain perfusion imaging in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2006. 12:273–278.
51. Khateb A, Michel CM, Pegna AJ, Landis T, Annoni J. New insight in to the stroop effect: A patiotemporal analysis of electric brain activity. NeuroReport. 2000. 11:1849–1855.
crossref
52. Bush G, Whalen PJ, Rosen BR, Jenike MA, Mclnerney SC, Rauch SL. The counting stroop: An interference task specialized for functional neuroimaging-Validation study with functional MPI. Hum Brain Mapp. 1998. 6:270–282.
crossref
53. Lin CH, Chiu YC, Cheng CM, Hsieh JC. Brain maps of Iowa gambling task. BMC Neurosci. 2008. 9:72. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2202/9/72.
crossref
54. Li SC, Lindenberger U. Nilsson LG, Markowitsch HJ, editors. Cross-level unification: A computational exploration of the link between deterioration of neurotransmitter systems dedifferentiation of cognitive abilities in old age. Cogntive Neuroscience of Memory. 1999. Seattle: Hogrefe & Huber;103–146.
crossref
55. Babcock RL, Laguna KD, Roesch SC. A comparison of the factor structure of progressing speed for younger and older adults: Testing the assumption of measurement equivalence across age groups. Psychol Aging. 1997. 12:268–276.
crossref
56. Baltes PB, Lindenberger U. Emergence of a powerful connection between sensory and cognition functions across the adult life span: a new window to the study of cognitive aging? Psychol Aging. 1997. 12:12–21.
crossref
TOOLS
Similar articles