Journal List > Korean J Obstet Gynecol > v.55(9) > 1088506

Cho: Epigenetic control of endocrine disrupting chemicals on gynecological disease: Focused on phthalates

Abstract

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) are some chemicals which are acting like hormones inside the body. May kinds of EDCs are acting like estrogen or anti-estrogen, so reproductive systems of male are the main targent organ. EDCs use genetic variations and epigenetic variations as main control route of diseases. When pregnant female is exposed to EDCs, the effects of EDCs on their epigenetic system affect through 3rd generation of offspring. Among many kinds of EDCs, the most notorious EDCs are dioxin and bisphenol A. Phthalates, which have so many kinds and high exposure rate, the effects of phthalate to gynecologic disease were not discovered. So in this paper, we try to summerize the effects of phthalate and new epignetic technique to evalaute the relationship among phthalate and gynecologic disease.

Figures and Tables

Fig. 1
The weight of evidence that Di(2-ehtylhexyl)phthalate causes adverse developmental or reproductive effect in human and laboratory animal.
kjog-55-619-g001
Fig. 2
National toxicology program of usa conclusions regarding the possibilities that human development or reproduction might be adversely affected by exposure to di(2-ehtylhexyl)phthalate.
kjog-55-619-g002
Fig. 3
Selected food concentrations of di(2-ehtylhexyl)phthalate (µg/g).
kjog-55-619-g003
Table 1
Suspected endocrine disruptors (From Lee et al., [1] with permission Korean Endocrine Society.)
kjog-55-619-i001

TCDD, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin; PCDF, polychlorinated dibenzofuran; PeCDF, 1,2,3,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran; DEHP, di(2-ehtylhexyl) phthalate; BBP, benzyl butyl phthalate; DBP, dibutyl phthalate; DPP, di-n-pentyl phthalate; DPrP, di-propyl phthalate; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; DDT, dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane; DDD, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane; DDE, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene; HCH, hexachlorocyclohexane.

Table 2
Some animal studies and human data about endocrine disrupting chemicals which show positive correlations with female reproductive disorders
kjog-55-619-i002

DES, diethylstilbesterol; DEHP, Di(2-ehtylhexyl)phthalate; DDT, dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane; PBA, polybutyl acrylate; PBB, polybromianted biphenyl; DDE, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene; BPA, bisphenol A; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl; PCOS, polycystic ovarian syndrome; HPO, hypothalmus pituitary ovarian; MXC, methoxychlor; AGEs, acute gastroenteritis.

Table 3
Variable phthalates and metabolites
kjog-55-619-i003

MW, molecular weight; EFSA, Eurpopean food safetly authority; TDI, tolerable daily intake; EPA, environmental protection agency; RfD, reference dose; DEHP, di(2-ehtylhexyl)phthalate; MEHP, mono ethyl hexyl phthalate; DiNP, diisononyl phthalate; MiNP, mono-iso-nonyl phthalate; DiDP, diisodecyl phthalate; MiDP, monoisodecyl phthalate; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; DPHP, di(2-Propyl Heptyl) phthalate; DMP, dimethylphosphate; DEP, dietyl phthalate; MEP, mono-ethyl phthalate; DnBP, di-n butyl phthalate; MnBP, mono-n-butyl phthalate; DiBP, diisobutyl Phthalate; MiBP, mono-iso-butyl phthalate; BBzP, butyl benzyl phthalate; MBzP, monobenzyl phthalate.

Table 4
Di(2-ehtylhexyl)phthalate exposure dose
kjog-55-619-i004

EPA, environmental protection agency; Rfd, reference dose.

Table 5
DEHP related disease in human and animal
kjog-55-619-i005

DEHP, di(2-ehtylhexyl)phthalate; BBzP, butyl benzyl phthalate; MnBeP, mono-n-benzyl phthalate; MnBP, mono-n-butyl phthalate; DnBP, di-n butyl phthalate; MBP, mono butyl phthalate; DiNP, diisononyl phthalate; DBP, dibutyl phthalate; MEP, mono-ethyl phthalate; MiBP, mono-iso-butyl phthalate; DBP, dibutyl phthalate; DEP, dietyl phthalate; DMP, dimethylphosphate.

References

1. Lee CW, Choi KH, Jeong SW, Kim HL, Seo YR. An overview and future perspective on endocrine disruptors. J Korean Endocr Soc. 2009. 24:7–14.
2. Newbold R. Cellular and molecular effects of developmental exposure to diethylstilbestrol: implications for other environmental estrogens. Environ Health Perspect. 1995. 103:Suppl 7. 83–87.
3. Yang JZ, Agarwal SK, Foster WG. Subchronic exposure to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin modulates the pathophysiology of endometriosis in the cynomolgus monkey. Toxicol Sci. 2000. 56:374–381.
4. Cobellis L, Latini G, De Felice C, Razzi S, Paris I, Ruggieri F, et al. High plasma concentrations of di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate in women with endometriosis. Hum Reprod. 2003. 18:1512–1515.
5. Reddy BS, Rozati R, Reddy BV, Raman NV. Association of phthalate esters with endometriosis in Indian women. BJOG. 2006. 113:515–520.
6. Rasier G, Parent AS, Gerard A, Lebrethon MC, Bourguignon JP. Early maturation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion and sexual precocity after exposure of infant female rats to estradiol or dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. Biol Reprod. 2007. 77:734–742.
7. Howdeshell KL, Hotchkiss AK, Thayer KA, Vandenbergh JG, vom Saal FS. Exposure to bisphenol A advances puberty. Nature. 1999. 401:763–764.
8. Krstevska-Konstantinova M, Charlier C, Craen M, Du Caju M, Heinrichs C, de Beaufort C, et al. Sexual precocity after immigration from developing countries to Belgium: evidence of previous exposure to organochlorine pesticides. Hum Reprod. 2001. 16:1020–1026.
9. Blanck HM, Marcus M, Tolbert PE, Rubin C, Henderson AK, Hertzberg VS, et al. Age at menarche and tanner stage in girls exposed in utero and postnatally to polybrominated biphenyl. Epidemiology. 2000. 11:641–647.
10. Colón I, Caro D, Bourdony CJ, Rosario O. Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development. Environ Health Perspect. 2000. 108:895–900.
11. Türkyilmaz Z, Karabulut R, Sönmez K, Can Başaklar A. A striking and frequent cause of premature thelarche in children: Foeniculum vulgare. J Pediatr Surg. 2008. 43:2109–2111.
12. Martin OV, Lester JN, Voulvoulis N, Boobis AR. Human health and endocrine disruption: a simple multicriteria framework for the qualitative assessment of end point specific risks in a context of scientific uncertainty. Toxicol Sci. 2007. 98:332–347.
13. Jenkins S, Rowell C, Wang J, Lamartiniere CA. Prenatal TCDD exposure predisposes for mammary cancer in rats. Reprod Toxicol. 2007. 23:391–396.
14. Murray TJ, Maffini MV, Ucci AA, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM. Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure. Reprod Toxicol. 2007. 23:383–390.
15. Vandenberg LN, Maffini MV, Schaeberle CM, Ucci AA, Sonnenschein C, Rubin BS, et al. Perinatal exposure to the xenoestrogen bisphenol-A induces mammary intraductal hyperplasias in adult CD-1 mice. Reprod Toxicol. 2008. 26:210–219.
16. Caserta D, Maranghi L, Mantovani A, Marci R, Maranghi F, Moscarini M. Impact of endocrine disruptor chemicals in gynaecology. Hum Reprod Update. 2008. 14:59–72.
17. Mahoney MM, Padmanabhan V. Developmental programming: impact of fetal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals on gonadotropin-releasing hormone and estrogen receptor mRNA in sheep hypothalamus. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2010. 247:98–104.
18. Bellingham M, Fowler PA, Amezaga MR, Rhind SM, Cotinot C, Mandon-Pepin B, et al. Exposure to a complex cocktail of environmental endocrine-disrupting compounds disturbs the kisspeptin/GPR54 system in ovine hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Environ Health Perspect. 2009. 117:1556–1562.
19. Dickerson SM, Cunningham SL, Gore AC. Prenatal PCBs disrupt early neuroendocrine development of the rat hypothalamus. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2011. 252:36–46.
20. Swan SH, Main KM, Liu F, Stewart SL, Kruse RL, Calafat AM, et al. Decrease in anogenital distance among male infants with prenatal phthalate exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 2005. 113:1056–1061.
21. Kaufman RH. Structural changes of the genital tract associated with in utero exposure to diethylstilbestrol. Obstet Gynecol Annu. 1982. 11:187–202.
22. Fowler PA, Bellingham M, Sinclair KD, Evans NP, Pocar P, Fischer B, et al. Impact of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) on female reproductive health. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2012. 355:231–239.
23. Diamanti-Kandarakis E, Bourguignon JP, Giudice LC, Hauser R, Prins GS, Soto AM, et al. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals: an Endocrine Society scientific statement. Endocr Rev. 2009. 30:293–342.
24. Parmar D, Srivastava SP, Seth PK. Hepatic mixed function oxidases and cytochrome P-450 contents in rat pups exposed to di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate through mother's milk. Drug Metab Dispos. 1985. 13:368–370.
25. Singh AR, Lawrence WH, Autian J. Maternal-fetal transfer of 14C-di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and 14C-diethyl phthalate in rats. J Pharm Sci. 1975. 64:1347–1350.
26. Kremer JJ, Williams CC, Parkinson HD, Borghoff SJ. Pharmacokinetics of monobutylphthalate, the active metabolite of di-n-butylphthalate, in pregnant rats. Toxicol Lett. 2005. 159:144–153.
27. Fennell TR, Krol WL, Sumner SC, Snyder RW. Pharmacokinetics of dibutylphthalate in pregnant rats. Toxicol Sci. 2004. 82:407–418.
28. Kessler W, Numtip W, Grote K, Csanady GA, Chahoud I, Filser JG. Blood burden of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and its primary metabolite mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in pregnant and nonpregnant rats and marmosets. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2004. 195:142–153.
29. Calafat AM, Brock JW, Silva MJ, Gray LE Jr, Reidy JA, Barr DB, et al. Urinary and amniotic fluid levels of phthalate monoesters in rats after the oral administration of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and di-n-butyl phthalate. Toxicology. 2006. 217:22–30.
30. Ema M, Harazono A, Miyawaki E, Ogawa Y. Characterization of developmental toxicity of mono-n-benzyl phthalate in rats. Reprod Toxicol. 1996. 10:365–372.
31. Saillenfait AM, Langonne I, Leheup B. Effects of mono-n-butyl phthalate on the development of rat embryos: in vivo and in vitro observations. Pharmacol Toxicol. 2001. 89:104–112.
32. Ema M, Itami T, Kawasaki H. Teratogenic phase specificity of butyl benzyl phthalate in rats. Toxicology. 1993. 79:11–19.
33. Singh AR, Lawrence WH, Autian J. Teratogenicity of phthalate esters in rats. J Pharm Sci. 1972. 61:51–55.
34. Pan G, Hanaoka T, Yoshimura M, Zhang S, Wang P, Tsukino H, et al. Decreased serum free testosterone in workers exposed to high levels of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP): a cross-sectional study in China. Environ Health Perspect. 2006. 114:1643–1648.
35. Wormuth M, Scheringer M, Vollenweider M, Hungerbühler K. What are the sources of exposure to eight frequently used phthalic acid esters in Europeans? Risk Anal. 2006. 26:803–824.
36. Lyche JL, Gutleb AC, Bergman A, Eriksen GS, Murk AJ, Ropstad E, et al. Reproductive and developmental toxicity of phthalates. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2009. 12:225–249.
37. Cresteil T. Onset of xenobiotic metabolism in children: toxicological implications. Food Addit Contam. 1998. 15:Suppl. 45–51.
38. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological profile for di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). 2002. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
39. Shea KM. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health. Pediatric exposure and potential toxicity of phthalate plasticizers. Pediatrics. 2003. 111:1467–1474.
40. Sjoberg P, Bondesson U, Sedin G, Gustafsson J. Dispositions of di- and mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in newborn infants subjected to exchange transfusions. Eur J Clin Invest. 1985. 15:430–436.
41. Sjoberg PO, Bondesson UG, Sedin EG, Gustafsson JP. Exposure of newborn infants to plasticizers. Plasma levels of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate during exchange transfusion. Transfusion. 1985. 25:424–428.
42. Clark K, Cousins IT, Mackay D. Staples CA, editor. Observed concentrations in the environment. Phthalate esters. The handbook of environmental chemistry. 2003. Volume 3Q. London: Springer;125–177.
43. Kim YH, Kim SH, Lee HW, Chae HD, Kim CH, Kang BM. Increased viability of endometrial cells by in vitro treatment with di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Fertil Steril. 2010. 94:2413–2416.
44. Rossing MA, Cushing-Haugen KL, Wicklund KG, Doherty JA, Weiss NS. Risk of epithelial ovarian cancer in relation to benign ovarian conditions and ovarian surgery. Cancer Causes Control. 2008. 19:1357–1364.
45. Merritt MA, Green AC, Nagle CM, Webb PM. Australian Cancer Study (Ovarian Cancer). Australian Ovarian Cancer Study Group. Talcum powder, chronic pelvic inflammation and NSAIDs in relation to risk of epithelial ovarian cancer. Int J Cancer. 2008. 122:170–176.
46. Brinton LA, Sakoda LC, Sherman ME, Frederiksen K, Kjaer SK, Graubard BI, et al. Relationship of benign gynecologic diseases to subsequent risk of ovarian and uterine tumors. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005. 14:2929–2935.
47. Fukunaga M, Nomura K, Ishikawa E, Ushigome S. Ovarian atypical endometriosis: its close association with malignant epithelial tumours. Histopathology. 1997. 30:249–255.
48. Pearce CL, Templeman C, Rossing MA, Lee A, Near AM, Webb PM, et al. Association between endometriosis and risk of histological subtypes of ovarian cancer: a pooled analysis of case-control studies. Lancet Oncol. 2012. 13:385–394.
49. Ness RB. Endometriosis and ovarian cancer: thoughts on shared pathophysiology. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003. 189:280–294.
50. Kurman RJ, Shih Ie M. Molecular pathogenesis and extraovarian origin of epithelial ovarian cancer--shifting the paradigm. Hum Pathol. 2011. 42:918–931.
51. Wiegand KC, Shah SP, Al-Agha OM, Zhao Y, Tse K, Zeng T, et al. ARID1A mutations in endometriosis-associated ovarian carcinomas. N Engl J Med. 2010. 363:1532–1543.
52. Yamaguchi K, Mandai M, Toyokuni S, Hamanishi J, Higuchi T, Takakura K, et al. Contents of endometriotic cysts, especially the high concentration of free iron, are a possible cause of carcinogenesis in the cysts through the iron-induced persistent oxidative stress. Clin Cancer Res. 2008. 14:32–40.
53. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Polycholorinated dibenxo-para-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenxofurans [Internet]. c2012. cited 2012 Aug 20. Lyon, France: World Health Organization;Available form; http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol69/volume69.pdf.
54. National Toxicology Program. The january 2001 addendum to the ninth report on carcinogens (originally published May 2000). 2001. Research Triangle Park, NC: US HHS, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program.
55. Meeks JJ, Sheinfeld J, Eggener SE. Environmental toxicology of testicular cancer. Urol Oncol. 2012. 30:212–215.
56. Yao PL, Lin YC, Richburg JH. Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) promotes invasion and migration of human testicular embryonal carcinoma cells. Biol Reprod. 2012. 86:160.
57. Park MA, Hwang KA, Lee HR, Yi BR, Jeung EB, Choi KC. Cell growth of BG-1 ovarian cancer cells is promoted by di-n-butyl phthalate and hexabromocyclododecane via upregulation of the cyclin D and cyclin-dependent kinase-4 genes. Mol Med Report. 2012. 5:761–766.
58. Campioli E, Batarseh A, Li J, Papadopoulos V. The endocrine disruptor mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate affects the differentiation of human liposarcoma cells (SW 872). PLoS One. 2011. 6:e28750.
59. Dolinoy DC, Huang D, Jirtle RL. Maternal nutrient supplementation counteracts bisphenol A-induced DNA hypomethylation in early development. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007. 104:13056–13061.
60. Ho SM, Tang WY, Belmonte de Frausto J, Prins GS. Developmental exposure to estradiol and bisphenol A increases susceptibility to prostate carcinogenesis and epigenetically regulates phosphodiesterase type 4 variant 4. Cancer Res. 2006. 66:5624–5632.
61. Newbold RR. Lessons learned from perinatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2004. 199:142–150.
62. Alworth LC, Howdeshell KL, Ruhlen RL, Day JK, Lubahn DB, Huang TH, et al. Uterine responsiveness to estradiol and DNA methylation are altered by fetal exposure to diethylstilbestrol and methoxychlor in CD-1 mice: effects of low versus high doses. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2002. 183:10–22.
63. Zama AM, Uzumcu M. Fetal and neonatal exposure to the endocrine disruptor methoxychlor causes epigenetic alterations in adult ovarian genes. Endocrinology. 2009. 150:4681–4691.
64. Tang WY, Newbold R, Mardilovich K, Jefferson W, Cheng RY, Medvedovic M, et al. Persistent hypomethylation in the promoter of nucleosomal binding protein 1 (Nsbp1) correlates with overexpression of Nsbp1 in mouse uteri neonatally exposed to diethylstilbestrol or genistein. Endocrinology. 2008. 149:5922–5931.
65. Anway MD, Cupp AS, Uzumcu M, Skinner MK. Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors and male fertility. Science. 2005. 308:1466–1469.
66. Newbold RR, Padilla-Banks E, Jefferson WN. Adverse effects of the model environmental estrogen diethylstilbestrol are transmitted to subsequent generations. Endocrinology. 2006. 147:S11–S17.
67. Stouder C, Paoloni-Giacobino A. Transgenerational effects of the endocrine disruptor vinclozolin on the methylation pattern of imprinted genes in the mouse sperm. Reproduction. 2010. 139:373–379.
68. Salian S, Doshi T, Vanage G. Perinatal exposure of rats to Bisphenol A affects the fertility of male offspring. Life Sci. 2009. 85:742–752.
69. Nilsson EE, Anway MD, Stanfield J, Skinner MK. Transgenerational epigenetic effects of the endocrine disruptor vinclozolin on pregnancies and female adult onset disease. Reproduction. 2008. 135:713–721.
TOOLS
Similar articles