Ji Hyun Kim; Eunjung Lee; Taisun Hyun

doi:10.4163/jnh.2015.48.1.94

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Kim, Lee, and Hyun: Dietary folate intake and food sources of children and adolescents in Chungcheong area - Using nutrient database revised by measured folate in selected foods∗

Research Article

J Nutr Health 2015;48(1):94-104.

Published online: 19 January 2015

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4163/jnh.2015.48.1.94

Dietary folate intake and food sources of children and adolescents in Chungcheong area - Using nutrient database revised by measured folate in selected foods^∗

Ji Hyun Kim, Eunjung Lee, Taisun Hyun

Department of Food and Nutrition, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 362-763, Korea

^†To whom correspondence should be addressed. tel: +82-43-261-2790, e-mail: taisun@chungbuk.ac.kr

^∗ This work was supported by the research grant of the Chungbuk National University in 2012.

Received 12 January 2015 Revised 30 January 2015 Accepted NaN ∗∗∗ NaN

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Purpose:

The purpose of this study was to estimate dietary folate intake and food sources of children and adolescents using a nutrient database revised based on measured folate in selected foods.

Methods:

Folate content in 51 foods known as folate sources was measured by microbiological assay after trienzyme extraction. Folate intake was estimated from a part of the data of ‘Dietary Intake Survey of Infants, Children and Adolescents in 2007~2008’ conducted by the Korea Food and Drug Administration (KFDA) and the Korea Health Industry Development Institute (KHIDI). The study subjects were 567 children aged 1~19 years living in the Chungcheong area who completed two 24-hour recalls.

Results:

Folate values were revised by replacing the values in the current database with the analyzed values except when the value in the current database was between the analytical values or was not different from the mean analytical value by more than 10%. Among the revised values of 40 food items, folate values of 36 foods were lower than the current values. Mean folate intakes estimated with the revised database were approximately 70~80% lower than those estimated with the current database. Mean folate intakes of males aged 12~14 and females aged 12~19 were lower than the 2010 Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs). Chicken's eggs, Kimchi, rice, mandarin, and laver were found to be main food sources of folate. Conclusion: In this study, mean dietary folate intakes were lower than those estimated with the current database. Further analyses for folate content especially in cooked foods commonly consumed in Korea are needed using a reliable assay in order to accurately assess folate intake of the Korean population. In addition, nutrition education should be provided for adolescent females in order to increase consumption of folate-rich foods.

Keywords: folate content, dietary folate intake, food sources, children, adolescents

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Fig. 1.

Percentage of dietary folate intake compared with 2010 Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs). ∗∗∗p < 0.001 : Significantly different between the values estimated using KNS database and revised database by paired t-test.

Table 1.

Folate content in selected foods

Food group	Food	Analyzed value (µg/100g)		Current database (µg/100g)		Analyzed value /value in KNS database (%)	Decision to revise³⁾
Food group	Food	Individual data	Mean	KNS¹⁾	USDA²⁾	Analyzed value /value in KNS database (%)	Decision to revise³⁾
Cereals and grain products	Rice, cooked (쌀밥)	1.4/1.8/2.0	1.7	9.1	1~3	18.7	Y
	Rice (쌀)	10.5/11.1/11.5	11.0	24.5	7~9	44.9	Y
	Ramyon, cooked (라면)	9.4/11.5/11.9	10.9	23.4⁴⁾	-	46.6	Y
	Corn (옥수수)	95.8/170.1	133.0	205.1	42	64.8	Y
	Spaghetti, dried (스파게티, 마른것)	) 22.1/27.5	24.8	33.7	18	73.6	Y
	Wheat flour (밀가루)	14.5/21.1	17.8	16.0	26	111.3	N
	Loaf bread (식빵)	21.3/33.4	27.4	23.0	33	119.1	N
Potatoes and starches	Sweet potato (고구마)	30.1/49.9	40.0	83.7	11	47.8	Y
Potatoes and starches	Potato (감자)	22.4/24.1/33.8	26.8	27.3	18	98.2	N
Vegetables	Kimchi, youlmu (열무김치)	38.1/47.8	43.0	164.3	-	26.1	Y
	Tomato (토마토)	14.8/19.6	17.2	51.9	15	33.1	Y
	Radish (무)	12.3/18.2/23.5	18.0	40.1	28	44.9	Y
	Kimchi, Chinese cabbage (배추김	김치) 49.8/54.7	52.3	115.0	-	45.4	Y
	Cabbage (양배추)	42.6/63.5	53.1	98.0	43	54.1	Y
	Spinach (시금치)	209.8/213.0	211.4	293.6	194	72.0	Y
	Green pepper (풋고추)	23.3/35.6	29.5	40.9	23	72.0	Y
	Red pepper (홍고추)	81.3/139.6	110.5	152.7	23	72.3	Y
	Chinese cabbage (배추)	79.3/93.3	86.3	116.6	79	74.0	Y
	Perilla leaf (깻잎)	115.0/119.6	117.3	157.5	-	74.5	Y
	Crown daisy (쑥갓)	204.0/204.7	204.4	271.0	177	75.4	Y
	Welsh onion, large type (대파)	86.9/87.0	87.0	113.5	64	76.6	Y
	Onion (양파)	12.6/14.4	13.5	17.0	19	79.4	Y
	Lettuce, improved (상추, 개량종)	87.5/102.1	94.8	115.0	38~136	82.4	Y
	Pumpkin, immature (애호박)	37.9/58.7	48.3	55.6	24	86.9	N
	Garlic (마늘)	73.7/114.0	96.8	86.4	3	112.0	N
	Mallow (아욱)	127.7/176.3	152.0	130.1	-	116.8	N
	Kimchi, KKaK Du Ki (깍두기)	5.6/31.5	18.6	6.0	-	309.2	N
	Kimchi, welsh onion (파김치)	49.2/54.2	51.7	16.1	-	321.1	Y
Fruits	Orange juice (오렌지주스)	32.6/39.2	35.9	57.6	30	62.3	Y
	Grape (포도)	10.9/25.5	18.2	27.7	4	65.7	Y
	Muskmelon (참외)	50.7/76.8	63.8	64.2	-	99.4	N
	Kiwi (키위)	57.5/71.5	64.5	49.4	25	130.6	Y
	Mandarin (귤)	35.9/41.9	38.9	24.0	16	162.1	Y
Eggs	Chicken's eggs (계란)⁵⁾	86.9/88.9/106.7/114	4.5 99.3	124.5	47	79.8	Y
Eggs	Quail's eggs (메추리알)⁵⁾	201.3/212.6	207.0	231.3	66	89.5	Y
Meats and poultry	Pork, loin(돼지고기, 등심)⁵⁾	0.4/1.6	1.0	4.0	1~5	25.0	Y
	Dumpling, frozen (고기만두)	18.7/32.7	25.7	80.8	-	31.8	Y
	Chicken meat (닭고기)	14.2/15.8	15.0	16.7	4~8	89.8	Y
	Beef, rump (쇠고기, 우둔)⁵⁾	5.3/9.9	7.6	8.3	3~13	91.6	N
Milk and dairy products	Cheese, processed (가공치즈)⁵⁾	9.4/21.8 9.9/9.9	15.6 9.9	61.0 32.1	7~27 -	25.6 30.8	Y Y
	Yogurt, liquid type (액상요구르트)	9.9/9.9	9.9	32.1	-	30.8	YY
	Cow's milk (우유)	4.2/5.0	4.6	9.7	5	47.4	Y
	Yogurt, curd type (호상요구르트)	10.0/13.2	11.6	23.7	7~12	48.9	Y
Fishes and shell fishes	Mackerel (고등어)⁵⁾	12.7/21.6	17.2	45.0	1~8	38.2	Y
	Anchovy boiled-dried (멸치, 자건품	품) 63.5/94.6	79.1	107.5	-	73.5	Y
	Little neck clam (바지락)	38.3/71.5	54.9	17.0	5	322.9	Y
Seaweeds	Laver, dried (김)	769.2/905.0	837.0	1633.4	-	51.2	Y
Beverage	Beer (맥주)	7.7/8.8	8.3	19.9	6	41.5	Y
Seasonings	Soy sauce (간장)	7.0/39.6	23.3	45.4	13~18	51.3	Y
	Fermented soybeans (청국장)	206.2/456.7	331.5	386.7	-	85.7	N
	Soybean paste (된장)	58.0/96.8	77.4	89.4	-	86.6	N

1) The Korean Nutrition Society

¹⁰ 2) U. S. Department of Agiculture

¹⁵ 3) Y = Yes, N = No 4) Ramyon, instant, uncooked 5) Fat was removed before trienzyme extraction due to high fat content.

Table 2.

General characteristics of the subjects

Age (years)	Gender		Household income (10,000 won/month)			Dietary supplement use		Total
Age (years)	Male	Female	<200	200~300	>300	Yes	No	Total
1~2	24 (42.1)¹⁾	33 (57.9)	12 (21.1)	28 (48.1)	17 (29.8)	16 (28.1)	41 (71.9)	57 (100.0)
3~5	48 (52.7)	43 (47.3)	18 (19.8)	46 (50.5)	27 (29.7)	32 (35.2)	59 (64.8)	91 (100.0)
6~8	38 (40.0)	57 (60.0)	17 (17.9)	50 (52.6)	28 (29.5)	32 (33.7)	63 (66.3)	95 (100.0)
9~11	44 (46.3)	51 (53.7)	23 (24.2)	43 (45.3)	29 (30.5)	20 (21.1)	75 (78.9)	95 (100.0)
12~14	61 (55.5)	49 (44.5)	26 (23.6)	57 (51.8)	27 (24.6)	22 (20.6)	88 (79.4)	110 (100.0)
15~19	63 (52.9)	56 (47.1)	34 (28.4)	57 (47.8)	28 (23.8)	11 (9.2)	108 (90.8)	119 (100.0)
Total	278 (49.9)	289 (50.1)	130 (22.9)	281 (49.6)	156 (27.5)	133 (23.5)	434 (76.5)	567 (100.0)

1) N (%)

Table 3.

Mean dietary intake of energy and folate

	Age (years)	n	Energy (kcal)	KNS¹⁾ database	Revised database			t-value
	Age (years)	n	Energy (kcal)	Folate (µg)	Folate (µg)	Folic acid (µg)	Total folate²⁾ (µgDFE)³⁾	t-value
Children	1~2 3~5	57 91	1,143 (114)⁴⁾ 1,441 (103)	271.0 ± 108.4⁵⁾ 318.8 ± 145.8	188.1 ± 97.2 225.6 ± 108.6	15.1 ± 40.6 4.6 ± 16.2	214.0 ± 91.9 234.3 ± 114.8	7.34^∗∗∗ 13.36^∗∗∗
Children	3~5	91	1,441 (103)	318.8 ± 145.8	225.6 ± 108.6	40.6 4.6 ± 16.2	234.3 ± 114.8	13.36^∗∗∗
Male	6~8	38	1,929 (121)	433.3 ± 209.6	293.5 ± 135.4	3.3 ± 11.7	300.7 ± 140.5	9.02^∗∗∗
	9~11 12~14	44 61	2,000 (105) 2,145 (89)	507.9 ± 222.4 503.0 ± 209.8	347.4 ± 144.2 350.0 ± 155.5	4.8 ± 15.5 4.7 ± 16.1	356.1 ± 144.6 359.8 ± 164.1	9.85^∗∗∗ 15.17^∗∗∗
	12~14	61	2,145 (89)	503.0 ± 209.8	350.0 ± 155.5	4.7 ± 16.1	359.8 ± 164.1	15.17^∗∗∗
	15~19	63	2,446 (91)	573.1 ± 313.7	393.5 ± 231.9	2.2 ± 10.0	398.9 ± 235.2	13.89^∗∗∗
Female	6~8	57	1,563 (104)	382.7 ± 167.2	277.0 ± 146.1	4.5 ± 13.9	285.3 ± 145.1	12.90^∗∗∗
	9~11 12~14	51 49	1,797 (106) 1,736 (87)	412.8 ± 143.9 432.4 ± 201.4	294.7 ± 111.2 293.1 ± 150.9	3.7 ± 10.8 1.1 ± 7.4	301.9 ± 113.1 296.1 ± 151.1	12.71^∗∗∗ 12.59^∗∗∗
	12~14	49	1,736 (87)	432.4 ± 201.4	293.1 ± 150.9	1.1 ± 7.4	296.1 ± 151.1	12.59^∗∗∗
	15~19	56	1,788 (89)	447.9 ± 209.8	310.4 ± 146.4	4.2 ± 19.8	318.9 ± 147.4	11.63^∗∗∗

1) The Korean Nutrition Society

¹⁰ 2) Total folate = Folate + 1.7 × folic acid 3) DFE = Dietary Folate Equivalent 4) Percentage of Estimated Energy Requirement (%EER) 5) Mean ± SD ∗∗∗p < 0.001 : Significantly different between total folate intake estimated using KNS database and revised database by paired t-test.

Table 4.

Food sources of folate

Rank	Food	% of total folate	Cumulative %	Rank	Food	% of total folate	Cumulative %
1~2 y (n = 57)				3~5 y (n = 91)
1	Soybean milk	12.3	12.3	1	Chicken's eggs	10.7	10.7
2	Infant formula milk powder	11.7	24.1	2	Rice	5.9	16.6
3	Chicken's eggs	11.0	35.1	3	Laver, dried	5.9	22.5
4	Rice	5.0	40.1	4	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	5.7	28.2
5	Strawberries	4.8	44.9	5	Mandarin	4.9	33.1
6	Laver, dried	4.2	49.1	6	Spinach	4.0	37.1
7	Cow's milk	3.6	52.7	7	Cow's milk	2.9	40.0
8	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	3.5	56.2	8	Quail's eggs	2.8	42.9
9	Sweet potato	3.3	59.4	9	Orange juice	2.2	45.1
10	Mandarin	2.8	62.2	10	Kiwi	2.2	47.3
6~8 y Male (n = 38)				6~8 y Female (n = 57)
1	Chicken's eggs	15.3	15.3	1	Chicken's eggs	9.4	9.4
2	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	10.3	25.5	2	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	8.3	17.7
3	Rice	5.4	31.0	3	Mandarin	6.4	24.1
4	Laver, dried	4.7	35.7	4	Spinach	5.6	29.7
5	Chinese cabbage	3.0	38.6	5	Rice	5.1	34.8
6	Spinach	2.9	41.6	6	Strawberries	4.9	39.7
7	Mandarin	2.6	44.2	7	Laver, dried	4.7	44.3
8	Welsh onion	2.2	46.4	8	Cereal	2.8	47.2
9	Black soybeans	2.2	48.6	9	Bean sprouts	2.7	49.9
10	Potato	2.2	50.8	10	Corn	2.2	52.1
9~11 y Male (n = 44)				9~11 y Female (n = 51)
1	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	11.3	11.3	1	Chicken's eggs	10.6	10.6
2	Chicken's eggs	10.2	21.5	2	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	10.3	20.9
3	Rice	5.6	27.1	3	Mandarin	7.3	28.2
4	Spinach	5.0	32.1	4	Rice	5.3	33.5
5	Mandarin	4.1	36.1	5	Spinach	4.8	38.3
6	Laver, dried	3.8	40.0	6	Laver, dried	3.2	41.5
7	Muskmelon	3.5	43.5	7	Welsh onion	3.0	44.6
8	Potato	3.2	46.7	8	Bean sprouts	2.7	47.3
9	Bean sprouts	3.2	49.9	9	Kiwi	2.3	49.6
10	Cereal	2.4	52.3	10	Cereal	2.2	51.8
12~14 y Male (n = 61)				12~14 y Female (n = 49)
1	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	12.0	12.0	1	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	15.1	15.1
2	Chicken's eggs	10.2	22.1	2	Chicken's eggs	8.7	23.7
3	Rice	5.4	27.5	3	Mandarin	5.8	29.6
4	Welsh onion	3.3	30.9	4	Rice	5.8	35.4
5	Mandarin	3.3	34.2	5	Laver, dried	3.9	39.3
6	Laver, dried	3.1	37.3	6	Sweet potato	3.3	42.6
7	Black soybeans	2.9	40.2	7	Welsh onion	2.8	45.4
8	Bean sprouts	2.5	42.7	8	Bean sprouts	2.5	47.9
9	Sweet potato	2.5	45.2	9	Potato	2.2	50.1
10	Cereal	2.4	47.5	10	Pumpkin, immature	2.0	52.1
15~19 y Male (n = 63)				15~19 y Female (n = 56)
1	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	14.4	14.4	1	Kimch, Chinese cabbage	10.7	10.7
2	Chicken's eggs	11.8	26.3	2	Chicken's eggs	8.5	19.3
3	Rice	5.5	31.8	3	Rice	5.3	24.6
4	Welsh onion	4.1	35.9	4	Welsh onion	3.7	28.3
5	Mandarin	3.7	39.6	5	Spinach	3.5	31.8
6	Spinach	2.9	42.6	6	Strawberries	3.0	34.8
7	Strawberries	2.9	45.5	7	Mandarin	2.7	37.5
8	Black soybeans	2.7	48.1	8	Bean sprouts	2.5	40.1
9	Bean sprouts	2.4	50.5	9	Orange juice	2.4	42.4
10	Chicken meat	2.1	52.6	10	Laver, dried	2.4	44.8

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