Journal List > J Nutr Health > v.48(4) > 1081405

Kim, Kim, and Kim: A study on nutritional intakes in middle income adults based on data from the 5th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Abstract

Purpose:

This study was conducted to evaluate nutritional status in middle-class adults compared with low income or high income adults according to gender difference.

Methods:

Data from the 2012 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was used. A total of 7,082 adults aged from 30 to 64 were included and classified according to household income level into three groups. Dietary data was collected using 24-hr recall methods.

Results:

Most nutrients including energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals such as iron and calcium differed according to income levels. Iron intake of middle-class men was higher than that of the lowest income group, whereas that of middle-class women was similar to that of the lowest income group. In addition, no significant difference in carbohydrate, protein, fat, thiamin, and niacin intakes per 1,000 kcal and iron intake was found between the middle and high income group only in male subjects. In summary, our results showed that the relationship between nutritional status and income level as a socioeconomic parameter could vary according to gender difference.

Conclusion:

According to our results, it could be suggested that not only the lowest income people but also middle class women should be concerned in development of nutritional policies. Gender difference should be considered. It is a very meaningful implication for application to policy for obesity prevention or intervention.

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Table 1.
General characteristics according to household incomes
  Male Female
  Low class (n = 456) Middle class (n = 1,731) High class (n = 884) Low class (n = 769) Middle class (n = 2,134) High class (n = 1,108)
Age (years) 51.4 ± 10.0a 46.9 ± 10.1b 47.3 ± 9.6b 53.8 ± 9.6a 46.4 ± 10.2b 46.6 ± 9.2b
Incomes (10,000 won/month) 71.9 ± 36.9c 284.7 ± 100.0b 905.0 ± 1,722.4a 72.3 ± 33.0c 275.4 ± 99.6b 955.0 ± 1,992.3a
Education years∗
  ≤ 6 140 (30.8) 211 (12.2) 48 (5.4) 237 (30.8) 359 (16.8) 110 (9.9)
  7 ~ 9 92 (20.2) 192 (11.1) 53 (6.0) 155 (20.2) 314 (14.7) 101 (9.1)
  10 ~ 12 136 (29.8) 679 (39.2) 277 (31.3) 229 (29.8) 873 (40.9) 392 (35.4)
  ≥ 13 88 (19.2) 649 (37.5) 506 (57.2) 148 (19.2) 588 (27.6) 505 (45.6)
Residendial areas∗
  City 304 (66.7) 1,409 (81.4) 751 (84.9) 534 (69.4) 1,788 (83.8) 965 (87.1)
  Rural 152 (33.3) 322 (18.6) 133 (15.1) 235 (30.6) 346 (16.2) 143 (12.9)

Values are mean ± SD or n (%).

Different superscript letter indicates the comparison with significant differences among three groups as determined by Tukey's test (p < 0.05)

∗: From χ²-test (p < 0.001)

Table 2.
Nutrient intakes according to household incomes
  Male Female
  Low class (n = 456) Middle class (n = 1,731) High class (n = 884) Low class (n = 769) Middle class (n = 2,134) High class (n = 1,108)
Energy (kcal) 1,918.4 ± 741.3c 2,206.5 ± 972.7b 2,328.3 ± 895.2a 1,511.8 ± 590.1c 1,674.9 ± 699.3b 1,757.3 ± 649.7a
Carbohydrate (g g) 328.1 ± 119.2b 339.9 ± 140.8ab 351.8 ± 132.4a 275.1 ± 106.7b 279.1 ± 117.8ab 287.8 ± 113.4a
Protein (g) 63.0 ± 33.6c 79.9 ± 44.3b 86.4 ± 43.6a 50.0 ± 28.2c 60.2 ± 33.0b 65.1 ± 31.8a
Fat (g) 32.3 ± 27.6c 49.5 ± 37.5b 53.8 ± 36.7a 24.2 ± 22.2c 36.1 ± 27.1b 39.8 ± 25.6a
Calcium (mg) 447.0 ± 330.2c 535.8 ± 321.9b 581.8 ± 355.5a 395.5 ± 318.0c 464.9 ± 340.1b 501.2 ± 345.4a
Iron (mg) 13.3 ± 9.9b 15.8 ± 12.9a 16.6 ± 10.7a 12.0 ± 10.0b 13.0 ± 9.7b 14.0 ± 9.7a
Sodium (mg) 4,395.0 ± 2,800.8b 4,907.6 ± 3,463.6a 5,272.6 ± 3,420.2a 3,533.5 ± 2,658.9b 3,933.0 ± 3,174.3a 3,976.6 ± 2,675.2a
Potassium (mg) 2,666.5 ± 1,507.3c 3,097.4 ± 1,662.9b 3,399.1 ± 1,646.1a 2,301.9 ± 1,464.0c 2,624.3 ± 1,709.0b 2,938.7 ± 1,864.7a
Vitamin A (ugRE) 608.8 ± 601.9b 882.2 ± 1,241.0a 989.3 ± 1,463.0a 607.3 ± 758.3b 778.2 ± 1,147.6a 911.2 ± 2,170.3a
Carotene (ug) 3,193.1 ± 3,469.8b 4,419.1 ± 7,266.5a 4,873.0 ± 7,823.8a 3,149.9 ± 4,164.9b 3,983.7 ± 6,711.5ab 4,745.2 ± 12,975.7a
Retinol (ug) 65.6 ± 92.5b 130.5 ± 198.0a 157.3 ± 534.7a 74.9 ± 245.5b 99.1 ± 160.7a 114.0 ± 156.0a
Thiamin (mg) 1.20 ± 0.72c 1.49 ± 0.91b 1.61 ± 0.91a 0.99 ± 0.61c 1.13 ± 0.64b 1.21 ± 0.65a
Riboflavin (mg) 1.03 ± 0.67b 1.40 ± 0.79a 1.49 ± 0.77a 0.86 ± 0.57c 1.11 ± 0.66b 1.21 ± 0.69a
Niacin (mg) 14.9 ± 8.2c 18.6 ± 11.1b 20.1 ± 10.9a 11.9 ± 6.7c 14.1 ± 8.0b 15.5 ± 7.6a
Vitamin C (mg) 84.3 ± 78.0c 108.6 ± 100.4b 123.4 ± 118.1a 79.6 ± 77.2c 102.3 ± 100.0b 124.6 ± 137.3a

Values are mean ± SD.

Different superscript letter indicates the comparison with significant differences among three groups as determined by Tukey's test (p < 0.05)

Table 3.
Nutrient density (per 1,000 kcal) according to household incomes
  Male Female
  Low class (n = 456) Middle class (n = 1,731) High class (n = 884) Low class (n = 769) Middle class (n = 2,134) High class (n = 1,108)
Carbohydrate (g) 175.3 ± 31.6a 159.1 ± 31.9b 155.3 ± 32.1b 184.7 ± 29.1a 169.2 ± 30.0b 165.2 ± 30.3c
Protein (g) 32.3 ± 9.2b 35.8 ± 9.8a 36.8 ± 10.2a 32.6 ± 10.6c 35.7 ± 10.2b 37.2 ± 11.0a
Fat (g) 15.8 ± 9.2b 21.5 ± 9.8a 22.4 ± 9.3a 15.0 ± 9.6c 20.7 ± 10.1b 22.2 ± 9.8a
Calcium (mg) 239.8 ± 159.6b 260.2 ± 152.0a 265.6 ± 165.7a 261.9 ± 188.2b 288.2 ± 188.1a 297.4 ± 190.2a
Iron (mg) 7.0 ± 4.7 7.3 ± 5.7 7.4 ± 4.7 7.9 ± 6.3 7.8 ± 5.0 8.1 ± 4.7
Sodium (mg) 2,318.7 ± 1,273.1 2,219.7 ± 1,212.8 2,262.0 ± 1,235.8 2,316.9 ± 1,343.5 2,350.8 ± 1,518.4 2,266.8 ± 1,258.6
Potassium (mg) 1,410.2 ± 670.9b 1,428.9 ± 511.4ab 1,490.1 ± 566.9a 1,513.2 ± 681.4c 1,589.5 ± 766.6b 1,694.3 ± 821.5a
Vitamin A (ugRE) 321.4 ± 319.6b 408.7 ± 510.6a 434.8 ± 642.4a 390.5 ± 452.7b 468.9 ± 830.8a 512.1 ± 892.0a
Carotene (ug) 1,691.6 ± 1,887.0b 2,014.3 ± 2,952.2ab 2,155.8 ± 3,654.8a 2,047.3 ± 2,602.4b 2,407.5 ± 4,956.7ab 2,655.7 ± 5,320.8a
Retinol (ug) 33.1 ± 44.0b 62.4 ± 94.1a 67.3 ± 166.6a 43.6 ± 100.6b 60.3 ± 103.8a 65.6 ± 86.4a
Thiamin (mg) 0.61 ± 0.23b 0.67 ± 0.25a 0.69 ± 0.25a 0.64 ± 0.26c 0.67 ± 0.26b 0.70 ± 0.39a
Riboflavin (mg) 0.54 ± 0.29b 0.65 ± 0.27a 0.65 ± 0.27a 0.55 ± 0.27b 0.67 ± 0.31a 0.70 ± 0.33a
Niacin (mg) 7.6 ± 2.6b 8.3 ± 2.8a 8.6 ± 2.9a 7.8 ± 2.8c 8.4 ± 2.9b 8.9 ± 3.0a
Vitamin C (mg) 45.6 ± 42.6b 51.7 ± 46.1a 55.0 ± 49.7a 52.1 ± 41.8c 62.3 ± 59.6b 72.5 ± 68.6a

Values are mean ± SD.

Different superscript letter indicates the comparison with significant differences among three groups as determined by Tukey's test (p <

Table 4.
Proportions of subjects with nutrient intake below the estimated average requirement (EAR) according to household incomes
  Male Female
Low class (n = 456) Middle class (n = 1,731) High class (n = 884) P value Low class (n = 769) Middle class (n = 2,134) High class (n = 1,108) P value
Energy
  Below the EER 266 (58.3) 754 (43.6) 337 (38.1) < 0.001 327 (42.5) 744 (34.9) 309 (27.9) < 0.001
  Above the EER 190 (41.7) 977 (56.4) 547 (61.9)   442 (57.5) 1,390 (65.1) 799 (72.1)  
Protein
  Below the EAR 124 (27.2) 256 (14.8) 79 (8.9) < 0.001 232 (30.2) 413 (19.4) 135 (12.2) < 0.001
  Above the EAR 332 (72.8) 1,475 (85.2) 805 (91.1)   537 (69.8) 1,721 (80.6) 973 (87.8)  
Calcium
  Below the EAR 352 (77.2) 1,097 (63.4) 508 (57.5) < 0.001 626 (81.4) 1,611 (75.5) 801 (72.3) < 0.001
  Above the EAR 104 (22.8) 634 (36.6) 376 (42.5)   143 (18.6) 523 (24.5) 307 (27.7)  
Iron
  Below the EAR 104 (22.8) 296 (17.1) 86 (9.7) < 0.001 212 (27.6) 406 (19.0) 125 (11.3) < 0.001
  Above the EAR 352 (77.2) 1,435 (82.9) 798 (90.3)   557 (72.4) 1,728 (81.0) 983 (88.7)  
Vitamin A
  Below the EAR 260 (57.0) 671 (38.8) 298 (33.7) < 0.001 422 (54.9) 866 (40.6) 351 (31.7) < 0.001
  Above the EAR 196 (43.0) 1,060 (61.2) 586 (60.0)   347 (45.1) 1,268 (59.4) 757 (68.3)  
Thiamin
  Below the EAR 229 (50.2) 562 (32.5) 216 (24.4) < 0.001 422 (54.9) 893 (41.8) 383 (34.6) < 0.001
  Above the EAR 227 (49.8) 1,169 (67.5) 668 (75.6)   347 (45.1) 1,241 (58.2) 725 (65.4)  
Riboflavin
  Below the EAR 331 (72.6) 934 (54.0) 429 (48.5) < 0.001 535 (69.6) 1,081 (50.7) 478 (43.1) < 0.001
  Above the EAR 125 (27.4) 797 (46.0) 455 (51.5)   234 (30.4) 1,053 (49.3) 630 (56.9)  
Niacin
  Below the EAR 206 (45.2) 498 (28.8) 199 (22.5) < 0.001 412 (53.6) 856 (40.1) 333 (30.1) < 0.001
  Above the EAR 250 (54.8) 1,233 (71.2) 685 (77.5)   357 (46.4) 1,278 (59.9) 775 (69.9)  
Vitamin C
  Below the EAR 262 (57.5) 804 (46.4) 339 (38.3) < 0.001 483 (62.8) 1,084 (50.8) 447 (40.3) < 0.001
  Above the EAR 194 (42,5) 927 (53.6) 545 (61.7)   286 (37.2) 1,050 (49.2) 661 (59.7)  

Values are n (%).

EER: estimated energy requirement P value:

From χ²-test

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