A study on nutritional intakes in middle income adults based on data from the 5th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Ji-Myung Kim; Hye Sook Kim; Ki Nam Kim

doi:10.4163/jnh.2015.48.4.364

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Kim, Kim, and Kim: A study on nutritional intakes in middle income adults based on data from the 5th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Research Article

J Nutr Health 2015;48(4):364-370.

Published online: 19 January 2015

DOI: https://doi.org/10.4163/jnh.2015.48.4.364

A study on nutritional intakes in middle income adults based on data from the 5^th Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Ji-Myung Kim¹, Hye Sook Kim², Ki Nam Kim^3,^†

¹Food and Nutrition Major, Division of Food Science and Culinary Arts, Shinhan University, Gyeonggi 11340, Korea

²Department of Food and Nutritional Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Korea

³Department of Food and Nutrition, Daejeon University, Daejeon 34520, Korea

^†To whom correspondence should be addressed. tel: +82-42-280-2476, e-mail: kimkinam@dju.kr

Received 18 July 2015 Revised 30 July 2015 Accepted 5 August 2015

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Purpose:

This study was conducted to evaluate nutritional status in middle-class adults compared with low income or high income adults according to gender difference.

Methods:

Data from the 2012 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was used. A total of 7,082 adults aged from 30 to 64 were included and classified according to household income level into three groups. Dietary data was collected using 24-hr recall methods.

Results:

Most nutrients including energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals such as iron and calcium differed according to income levels. Iron intake of middle-class men was higher than that of the lowest income group, whereas that of middle-class women was similar to that of the lowest income group. In addition, no significant difference in carbohydrate, protein, fat, thiamin, and niacin intakes per 1,000 kcal and iron intake was found between the middle and high income group only in male subjects. In summary, our results showed that the relationship between nutritional status and income level as a socioeconomic parameter could vary according to gender difference.

Conclusion:

According to our results, it could be suggested that not only the lowest income people but also middle class women should be concerned in development of nutritional policies. Gender difference should be considered. It is a very meaningful implication for application to policy for obesity prevention or intervention.

Keywords: middle-class, income level, gender different, nutritional status, dietary intake

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Table 1.

General characteristics according to household incomes

	Male			Female
	Low class (n = 456)	Middle class (n = 1,731)	High class (n = 884)	Low class (n = 769)	Middle class (n = 2,134)	High class (n = 1,108)
Age (years)	51.4 ± 10.0^a	46.9 ± 10.1^b	47.3 ± 9.6^b	53.8 ± 9.6^a	46.4 ± 10.2^b	46.6 ± 9.2^b
Incomes (10,000 won/month)	71.9 ± 36.9^c	284.7 ± 100.0^b	905.0 ± 1,722.4^a	72.3 ± 33.0^c	275.4 ± 99.6^b	955.0 ± 1,992.3^a
Education years∗
≤ 6	140 (30.8)	211 (12.2)	48 (5.4)	237 (30.8)	359 (16.8)	110 (9.9)
7 ~ 9	92 (20.2)	192 (11.1)	53 (6.0)	155 (20.2)	314 (14.7)	101 (9.1)
10 ~ 12	136 (29.8)	679 (39.2)	277 (31.3)	229 (29.8)	873 (40.9)	392 (35.4)
≥ 13	88 (19.2)	649 (37.5)	506 (57.2)	148 (19.2)	588 (27.6)	505 (45.6)
Residendial areas∗
City	304 (66.7)	1,409 (81.4)	751 (84.9)	534 (69.4)	1,788 (83.8)	965 (87.1)
Rural	152 (33.3)	322 (18.6)	133 (15.1)	235 (30.6)	346 (16.2)	143 (12.9)

Values are mean ± SD or n (%).

Different superscript letter indicates the comparison with significant differences among three groups as determined by Tukey's test (p < 0.05)

∗: From χ²-test (p < 0.001)

Table 2.

Nutrient intakes according to household incomes

	Male			Female
	Low class (n = 456)	Middle class (n = 1,731)	High class (n = 884)	Low class (n = 769)	Middle class (n = 2,134)	High class (n = 1,108)
Energy (kcal)	1,918.4 ± 741.3^c	2,206.5 ± 972.7^b	2,328.3 ± 895.2^a	1,511.8 ± 590.1^c	1,674.9 ± 699.3^b	1,757.3 ± 649.7^a
Carbohydrate (g	g) 328.1 ± 119.2^b	339.9 ± 140.8^ab	351.8 ± 132.4^a	275.1 ± 106.7^b	279.1 ± 117.8^ab	287.8 ± 113.4^a
Protein (g)	63.0 ± 33.6^c	79.9 ± 44.3^b	86.4 ± 43.6^a	50.0 ± 28.2^c	60.2 ± 33.0^b	65.1 ± 31.8^a
Fat (g)	32.3 ± 27.6^c	49.5 ± 37.5^b	53.8 ± 36.7^a	24.2 ± 22.2^c	36.1 ± 27.1^b	39.8 ± 25.6^a
Calcium (mg)	447.0 ± 330.2^c	535.8 ± 321.9^b	581.8 ± 355.5^a	395.5 ± 318.0^c	464.9 ± 340.1^b	501.2 ± 345.4^a
Iron (mg)	13.3 ± 9.9^b	15.8 ± 12.9^a	16.6 ± 10.7^a	12.0 ± 10.0^b	13.0 ± 9.7^b	14.0 ± 9.7^a
Sodium (mg)	4,395.0 ± 2,800.8^b	4,907.6 ± 3,463.6^a	5,272.6 ± 3,420.2^a	3,533.5 ± 2,658.9^b	3,933.0 ± 3,174.3^a	3,976.6 ± 2,675.2^a
Potassium (mg)	2,666.5 ± 1,507.3^c	3,097.4 ± 1,662.9^b	3,399.1 ± 1,646.1^a	2,301.9 ± 1,464.0^c	2,624.3 ± 1,709.0^b	2,938.7 ± 1,864.7^a
Vitamin A (ugRE)	608.8 ± 601.9^b	882.2 ± 1,241.0^a	989.3 ± 1,463.0^a	607.3 ± 758.3^b	778.2 ± 1,147.6^a	911.2 ± 2,170.3^a
Carotene (ug)	3,193.1 ± 3,469.8^b	4,419.1 ± 7,266.5^a	4,873.0 ± 7,823.8^a	3,149.9 ± 4,164.9^b	3,983.7 ± 6,711.5^ab	4,745.2 ± 12,975.7^a
Retinol (ug)	65.6 ± 92.5^b	130.5 ± 198.0^a	157.3 ± 534.7^a	74.9 ± 245.5^b	99.1 ± 160.7^a	114.0 ± 156.0^a
Thiamin (mg)	1.20 ± 0.72^c	1.49 ± 0.91^b	1.61 ± 0.91^a	0.99 ± 0.61^c	1.13 ± 0.64^b	1.21 ± 0.65^a
Riboflavin (mg)	1.03 ± 0.67^b	1.40 ± 0.79^a	1.49 ± 0.77^a	0.86 ± 0.57^c	1.11 ± 0.66^b	1.21 ± 0.69^a
Niacin (mg)	14.9 ± 8.2^c	18.6 ± 11.1^b	20.1 ± 10.9^a	11.9 ± 6.7^c	14.1 ± 8.0^b	15.5 ± 7.6^a
Vitamin C (mg)	84.3 ± 78.0^c	108.6 ± 100.4^b	123.4 ± 118.1^a	79.6 ± 77.2^c	102.3 ± 100.0^b	124.6 ± 137.3^a

Values are mean ± SD.

Different superscript letter indicates the comparison with significant differences among three groups as determined by Tukey's test (p < 0.05)

Table 3.

Nutrient density (per 1,000 kcal) according to household incomes

	Male			Female
	Low class (n = 456)	Middle class (n = 1,731)	High class (n = 884)	Low class (n = 769)	Middle class (n = 2,134)	High class (n = 1,108)
Carbohydrate (g)	175.3 ± 31.6^a	159.1 ± 31.9^b	155.3 ± 32.1^b	184.7 ± 29.1^a	169.2 ± 30.0^b	165.2 ± 30.3^c
Protein (g)	32.3 ± 9.2^b	35.8 ± 9.8^a	36.8 ± 10.2^a	32.6 ± 10.6^c	35.7 ± 10.2^b	37.2 ± 11.0^a
Fat (g)	15.8 ± 9.2^b	21.5 ± 9.8^a	22.4 ± 9.3^a	15.0 ± 9.6^c	20.7 ± 10.1^b	22.2 ± 9.8^a
Calcium (mg)	239.8 ± 159.6^b	260.2 ± 152.0^a	265.6 ± 165.7^a	261.9 ± 188.2^b	288.2 ± 188.1^a	297.4 ± 190.2^a
Iron (mg)	7.0 ± 4.7	7.3 ± 5.7	7.4 ± 4.7	7.9 ± 6.3	7.8 ± 5.0	8.1 ± 4.7
Sodium (mg)	2,318.7 ± 1,273.1	2,219.7 ± 1,212.8	2,262.0 ± 1,235.8	2,316.9 ± 1,343.5	2,350.8 ± 1,518.4	2,266.8 ± 1,258.6
Potassium (mg)	1,410.2 ± 670.9^b	1,428.9 ± 511.4^ab	1,490.1 ± 566.9^a	1,513.2 ± 681.4^c	1,589.5 ± 766.6^b	1,694.3 ± 821.5^a
Vitamin A (ugRE)	321.4 ± 319.6^b	408.7 ± 510.6^a	434.8 ± 642.4^a	390.5 ± 452.7^b	468.9 ± 830.8^a	512.1 ± 892.0^a
Carotene (ug)	1,691.6 ± 1,887.0^b	2,014.3 ± 2,952.2^ab	2,155.8 ± 3,654.8^a	2,047.3 ± 2,602.4^b	2,407.5 ± 4,956.7^ab	2,655.7 ± 5,320.8^a
Retinol (ug)	33.1 ± 44.0^b	62.4 ± 94.1^a	67.3 ± 166.6^a	43.6 ± 100.6^b	60.3 ± 103.8^a	65.6 ± 86.4^a
Thiamin (mg)	0.61 ± 0.23^b	0.67 ± 0.25^a	0.69 ± 0.25^a	0.64 ± 0.26^c	0.67 ± 0.26^b	0.70 ± 0.39^a
Riboflavin (mg)	0.54 ± 0.29^b	0.65 ± 0.27^a	0.65 ± 0.27^a	0.55 ± 0.27^b	0.67 ± 0.31^a	0.70 ± 0.33^a
Niacin (mg)	7.6 ± 2.6^b	8.3 ± 2.8^a	8.6 ± 2.9^a	7.8 ± 2.8^c	8.4 ± 2.9^b	8.9 ± 3.0^a
Vitamin C (mg)	45.6 ± 42.6^b	51.7 ± 46.1^a	55.0 ± 49.7^a	52.1 ± 41.8^c	62.3 ± 59.6^b	72.5 ± 68.6^a

Values are mean ± SD.

Different superscript letter indicates the comparison with significant differences among three groups as determined by Tukey's test (p <

Table 4.

Proportions of subjects with nutrient intake below the estimated average requirement (EAR) according to household incomes

	Male				Female
	Low class (n = 456)	Middle class (n = 1,731)	High class (n = 884)	P value	Low class (n = 769)	Middle class (n = 2,134)	High class (n = 1,108)	P value
Energy
Below the EER	266 (58.3)	754 (43.6)	337 (38.1)	< 0.001	327 (42.5)	744 (34.9)	309 (27.9)	< 0.001
Above the EER	190 (41.7)	977 (56.4)	547 (61.9)		442 (57.5)	1,390 (65.1)	799 (72.1)
Protein
Below the EAR	124 (27.2)	256 (14.8)	79 (8.9)	< 0.001	232 (30.2)	413 (19.4)	135 (12.2)	< 0.001
Above the EAR	332 (72.8)	1,475 (85.2)	805 (91.1)		537 (69.8)	1,721 (80.6)	973 (87.8)
Calcium
Below the EAR	352 (77.2)	1,097 (63.4)	508 (57.5)	< 0.001	626 (81.4)	1,611 (75.5)	801 (72.3)	< 0.001
Above the EAR	104 (22.8)	634 (36.6)	376 (42.5)		143 (18.6)	523 (24.5)	307 (27.7)
Iron
Below the EAR	104 (22.8)	296 (17.1)	86 (9.7)	< 0.001	212 (27.6)	406 (19.0)	125 (11.3)	< 0.001
Above the EAR	352 (77.2)	1,435 (82.9)	798 (90.3)		557 (72.4)	1,728 (81.0)	983 (88.7)
Vitamin A
Below the EAR	260 (57.0)	671 (38.8)	298 (33.7)	< 0.001	422 (54.9)	866 (40.6)	351 (31.7)	< 0.001
Above the EAR	196 (43.0)	1,060 (61.2)	586 (60.0)		347 (45.1)	1,268 (59.4)	757 (68.3)
Thiamin
Below the EAR	229 (50.2)	562 (32.5)	216 (24.4)	< 0.001	422 (54.9)	893 (41.8)	383 (34.6)	< 0.001
Above the EAR	227 (49.8)	1,169 (67.5)	668 (75.6)		347 (45.1)	1,241 (58.2)	725 (65.4)
Riboflavin
Below the EAR	331 (72.6)	934 (54.0)	429 (48.5)	< 0.001	535 (69.6)	1,081 (50.7)	478 (43.1)	< 0.001
Above the EAR	125 (27.4)	797 (46.0)	455 (51.5)		234 (30.4)	1,053 (49.3)	630 (56.9)
Niacin
Below the EAR	206 (45.2)	498 (28.8)	199 (22.5)	< 0.001	412 (53.6)	856 (40.1)	333 (30.1)	< 0.001
Above the EAR	250 (54.8)	1,233 (71.2)	685 (77.5)		357 (46.4)	1,278 (59.9)	775 (69.9)
Vitamin C
Below the EAR	262 (57.5)	804 (46.4)	339 (38.3)	< 0.001	483 (62.8)	1,084 (50.8)	447 (40.3)	< 0.001
Above the EAR	194 (42,5)	927 (53.6)	545 (61.7)		286 (37.2)	1,050 (49.2)	661 (59.7)

Values are n (%).

EER: estimated energy requirement P value:

From χ²-test

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