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INTRODUCTION
Single-person households are on the rise recently in Korea due to various sociocultural changes. According to Statistics Korea, single-person households increased from 6.3% in 1980 to 15.5% in 2000, to 19.9% in 2005, and to 23.9% in 2010, exceeding, for the first time, the proportion of the traditional four-person households which was 22.5% [1]. The definition of a single varies across researchers, but Conley & Collins [2] defined a single as 'an individual who are not involved in any relationships, regardless of the past marital status', and Schwartz & Barbara [3] defined it as 'someone without legal spouse and who is currently not married including the divorced, widowed, or separated'. However, according to Park [4], singles are defined as 'those who maintains individualistic lifestyle, i.e., enjoying the benefits of being single or choosing to be single rather than everyone who lives as a single, and those who value the merits of living single and can afford the expense' aside from the status of living alone or not.
However, singles experience difficulties in everyday life, and increasingly spend less time for preparing meals at home. In addition, it is believed to be unavoidable and often for them to use convenience food, considering the report that they are increasingly having instant meals or insufficient meals with a limited number of dishes as they seek time-saving and convenience [5,6], which suggests a large impact of such diet on their quality of life.
Thus, the present study intends to provide basic data to improve the quality of life by determining the current status of the use of convenience food and explicating its relationship with quality of life through analyzing the dietary lifestyles of the singles living in Seoul.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
Subjects
In the present study, singles are defined based on the previous study [7] as 'the households currently without a legal or a putative spouse among the adults between 25 and 54 at the Korean age who live alone in a single separate household with economic capacity or working for a job'. Survey questionnaires were directly distributed to the singles living in Seoul metropolitan area, and the survey period was between April and August, 2012. Out of 250 surveys in total that had been distributed, 208 surveys excluding incomplete surveys were used for statistical analysis.
Survey protocols, instruments, and the process for obtaining informed consent for this study were approved by the institutional review committees of Sookmyung Women's University (SM-IRB-13-0924-008). All participants gave their written informed consent.
Questionnaires
The questionnaire for singles' dietary style was constructed with reference to relevant previous studies [8,9,10,11,12] and consisted of 18 items on eating habits, and the questionnaire for singles' convenience food satisfaction was constructed with reference to relevant previous studies [13,14,15,16,17] and consisted of 38 items on HMR(Home Meal Replacement: food prepared in a market, department store or home shopping, and consumed which require little or no preparation on the part of the consumer), processed food, delivery food, fast food satisfaction. The questionnaire for singles' quality of life was constructed with reference to relevant previous studies [18,19,20] and consisted of 17 items on health, economy, human relationship, psychological satisfaction. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale from "not important at all" to "very important". In order to test unidimensionality of multiple items that consist of each factor, exploratory factor analysis and reliability test were performed. Cronbach's alpha coefficient which measures reliability of variables were both greater than 0.6, the scale validation is reliable for the purpose of this study.
Research Model and Hypotheses
Structural equation model was used to examine the effect of Korean singles' dietary style on convenience food satisfaction and quality of life. The research model and research hypothesis are shown in Fig. 1.
Hypothesis 1. Dietary style significantly positive influence the convenience food satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2. Convenience food satisfaction significantly positive influence the quality of life.
Hypothesis 3. Dietary style significantly positive influence the quality of life.
Statistical analysis
All of the collected data were analyzed with SPSS 12.0 for Windows and AMOS (Analysis of Moment Structure) 5.0 Statistical programs. In order to test unidimensionality of multiple items that consist of each factor, exploratory factor analysis and reliability test were performed. After evaluating the validity of measured items by performing the confirmatory factor analysis for each factor, Equation Modeling (SEM) was used to determine path coefficients of the research model.
RESULTS
Exploratory factor analysis on measurement models Dietary Style
According to the results of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on dietary style items, 6 factors were extracted, but secondary factor analysis was conducted after four items with low Cronbach's alpha coefficients. The secondary analysis extracted four factors and the results of the exploratory factor analysis and factor loading on the measurement model are shown in Table 1. The explanatory power was 62.54%, and the Cronbach's alpha coefficients showed the reliability of 0.755, 0.821, 0.670, and 0.650. Factor 1 was named 'Convenience-oriented', factor 2 'Health-oriented', factor 3 'Economy-oriented', and factor 4 'Gourmet-oriented'.
Convenience food satisfaction
According to the results of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on convenience food satisfaction items, 9 factors were extracted, but secondary factor analysis was conducted after three items with low Cronbach's alpha coefficients. The secondary analysis extracted five factors and the results of the exploratory factor analysis and factor loading on the measurement model are shown in Table 2. The explanatory power was 65.88%, and the Cronbach's alpha coefficients showed the reliability of 0.848, 0.762, 0.761, 0.779 and 0.881. Factor 1 was named 'HMR satisfaction, factor 2 'processed food satisfaction', factor 3 'delivery food satisfaction', factor 4 'fast food satisfaction' and factor 5 'convenient to use convenience food'.
Quality of life
According to the results of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on quality of life items, 5 factors were extracted. The results of the exploratory factor analysis and factor loading on the measurement model are shown in Table 3. The explanatory power was 65.88%, and the Cronbach's alpha coefficients showed the reliability of 0.805, 0.886, 0.869, 0.725, and 0.822. Factor 1 was named 'human relationship satisfaction, factor 2 'Health satisfaction', factor 3 'negative psychological satisfaction', factor 4 'Economy satisfaction' and factor 5 'positive psychological satisfaction' (Table 3).
Confirmatory factor analysis on the measurement model
The results of the confirmatory factor analysis on the measurement model are shown in Table 4 and Fig. 2. The results of Goodness-of-fit index for the model are shown in Table 1 with accompanying recommended level for each index.
χ2 value was 3072.655 GFI 0.947, CFI 0.911, IFI 0.918, NFI 0.997, AGFI 0.892, RMR 0.051, RMSEA 0.072 with the values except χ2, AGFI and RMSEA value satisfied the recommended levels, verifying that the model was adequate.
Model fit test of the measurement model
Structural equation model was used as the theoretical model to analyze convenience food satisfaction and quality of life in accordance with the dietary styles of singles in Seoul (Table 5).
χ2 value was 3170.447 GFI 0.939 CFI 0.899 IFI 0.905 NFI 0.958 AGFI 0.919 RMR 0.051 RMSEA 0.072 with the values except χ2, CFI value satisfied the recommended levels of the goodness of fit index and thus, the overall research model was proved to be appropriate [21].
Test of Hypothesis
Test of Hypothesis 1: Dietary style significantly positive influence the convenience food satisfaction.
The results of structural equation modeling are shown in Fig. 3.
The convenience-oriented was shown to have a significant positive effect on HMR satisfaction (0.369, P < 0.05), processed food satisfaction (1.046, P < 0.001), delivered food satisfaction (0.472, P < 0.01), and fast food satisfaction (0.545, P < 0.001). It is clear that those with convenience-oriented diet style have high satisfaction in overall. The health-oriented was found to have a significant positive effect on HMR satisfaction (0.335, P < 0.05), processed food satisfaction (0.548, P < 0.01), convenient to use convenience food (0.221, P < 0.05). No significant effects were found for delivered food satisfaction and fast food satisfaction, but delivered food satisfaction showed the negative association, suggesting that the singles who are conscious of health have low satisfaction with the taste, nutrition, sanitization, and quality of delivered food. The economy-oriented had a significant negative effect on fast food satisfaction (-0.366, P < 0.05), but had no significant effect on convenient to use convenience food satisfaction. The gourmet-oriented had a significant negative effect on processed food satisfaction (-1.180, P < 0.001), fast food satisfaction (-0.613, P < 0.001), and showed tendency of negative association with all of HMR satisfaction, delivered food satisfaction, and convenient to use convenience food, but showed no significant effects.
Test of Hypothesis 2: Convenience food satisfaction significantly positive influence the quality of life.
The results of structural equation modeling are shown in Fig. 4.
HMR satisfaction was found to have a significant effect on positive psychological satisfaction (0.177, P < 0.05), but no significant effect on human relationship satisfaction, health satisfaction, negative psychological satisfaction, and economic satisfaction. In terms of HMR satisfaction, the singles with high positive psychological satisfaction, which includes having sound sleep and being optimistic and satisfied with themselves and sex life, tended to have higher HMR. Processed food satisfaction was found to have a significant positive effect on human relationship satisfaction (0.511, P < 0.01), negative psychological satisfaction (0.379, P < 0.05), positive psychological satisfaction (0.560, P < 0.01), and economic satisfaction (0.298, P < 0.05), except health satisfaction. Delivered food satisfaction did not have a significant effect on any of human relationship satisfaction, health satisfaction, negative psychological satisfaction, positive psychological satisfaction, and economic satisfaction. Fast food satisfaction showed the trend of positive association with all aspects of quality of life, and was found to have a significant positive effect on positive psychological satisfaction (0.394, P < 0.05) and economic satisfaction (0.280, P < 0.05) in particular. The satisfaction with the convenient to convenience food was found to have a significant positive effect on human relationship satisfaction (0.231, P < 0.05) and economic satisfaction (0.208, P < 0.05).
Test of Hypothesis 3: Dietary style significantly positive influence the quality of life.
The results of structural equation modeling are shown in Fig. 5.
The convenience-oriented was found to have a significant negative effect on all of human relationship satisfaction (-1.245, P < 0.001), health satisfaction (-0.788, P < 0.01), negative psychological satisfaction (-1.539, P < 0.001), positive psychological satisfaction (-1.616, P < 0.001), and economic satisfaction (-0.540, P < 0.05). It suggests that the singles with a stronger convenience-oriented diet style tend to perceive health, economic, and psychological quality of life is low and experience depression, anxiety, and frustration. The health-oriented was found to have a significant negative effect on all aspects of satisfaction except economic satisfaction, including human relationship satisfaction (-0.895, P < 0.001), health satisfaction (-0.587, P < 0.001), negative psychological satisfaction (-0.982, P < 0.001), and positive psychological satisfaction (-1.192, P < 0.001). The economic-oriented was found to have a significant effect on health satisfaction (0.522, P < 0.05), and economic satisfaction (-0.440, P < 0.05). In particular, the economy-oriented singles are believed to have a lower satisfaction with economic quality of life as low economic satisfaction and perception of economic hardship are likely to result in a diet conscious of cost. The gourmet-oriented was found to have a significant positive effect on human relationship satisfaction (1.630, P < 0.001), health satisfaction (1.217, P < 0.001), negative psychological satisfaction (1.613, P < 0.001), positive psychological satisfaction (2.028, P < 0.001), and economic satisfaction (0.970, P < 0.001).
DISCUSSION
Although the issues of singles' dietary style and quality of life are becoming important due to the increasing number of singles with economic power, little research has been conducted to date on singles' use of convenience food and quality of life in relation to their dietary style. This research analyzes the dietary style of singles, presenting the effect of the consumption of convenience food on the quality of life of singles through construct model development on the relationship between the intake and satisfaction with convenience food and quality of life.
As a result of testing Hypothesis 1, it is clear that those with convenience-oriented diet style have high satisfaction in overall. Chung [22] showed that convenience-oriented attitude has a positive effect on HMR-related satisfaction, and Park [23] showed that instant food-oriented style among dietary lifestyles has a significant effect on HMR preference (P < 0.001). In addition, convenience-oriented lifestyle of buying prepared meals or consuming instant food frequently is associated with increased use and awareness of, and preference for processed food [11], which suggests the significant effect on satisfaction for processed food. No significant effects were found for delivered food satisfaction and fast food satisfaction, but delivered food satisfaction showed the negative association, suggesting that singles conscious of health have low satisfaction with the taste, nutrition, sanitization, and quality of delivered food. Jang [24] also showed that the health-oriented were high in satisfaction with the taste of delivered food, but low in satisfaction with the quality, sanitization, and nutritional values, which is similar to the results of the present study. Seo [25] reported that a high proportion of health-oriented and achievement-oriented groups rarely use delivered food and argued that delivered food needs to position itself as eateries specialized to deliver safe food. Thus, it is suggested that efforts should be made to improve the taste of processed food and fast food as the singles who maintain gourmet-oriented dietary style tended to have lower satisfaction with convenience food, and in particular, the gourmet-oriented singles showed significantly lower satisfaction with processed food and fast food.
As a result of testing Hypothesis 2, HMR satisfaction was found to have a significant effect on positive psychological satisfaction. Processed food satisfaction was found to have a significant positive effect on human relationship satisfaction, negative psychological satisfaction, positive psychological satisfaction and economic satisfaction. Hong [11] argued that those who diet with more emphasis on health, safety, and flavor value processed food with less food additives. Also in the present study, it is believed that singles experience higher quality of life as they have higher processed food satisfaction due to various positive factors including time efficiency, practical convenience, etc. Fast food satisfaction showed the trend of positive association with all aspects of quality of life. It suggests that singles' higher satisfaction with nutrition, sanitization, and taste of fast food was associated with higher level of positive psychological satisfaction which includes having sound sleep and a positive outlook on all aspects of life, and economic satisfaction which includes being satisfied with one's own consumption level with enough money. In particular, convenient to convenience food satisfaction showed a trend of negative association with negative psychological aspects, although not significant effect, i.e., higher satisfaction with ease of use and packaging was associated with negative psychological states including being depressed, anxious, and easily frustrated, suggesting that using convenience food instead of making a home cooked meal may have a negative psychological effect.
As a result of testing Hypothesis 3, the health-oriented was found to have a significant negative effect on all aspects of satisfaction except economic satisfaction. Kim's study on the relationship between the level of health promoting behaviors and quality of life [26] determined the level of health promoting behaviors by the status of regular checkups, exercises, drinking, and eating breakfast, the level of dietary fibers in the diet, dietary lipid levels, etc., and reported that the higher level of health promoting behaviors was associated with the higher level of quality of life and was significantly higher among the married than among singles. The results of the present study which is contrary to Kim's report are believed to reflect characteristics of singles as study subjects and the possibility that ruminating on health leads to restricted thinking and behavior, negatively affecting overall quality of life. The gourmet-oriented was found to have a significant positive effect on all aspects of satisfaction. Lee [19] found that emotional stability related to food and pleasure of eating meals have a significant effect on the quality of life of the elderly staying home, and similarly, greater enjoyment of meals among gourmet-oriented singles in the present study is associated with overall satisfaction with quality of life.
There must be persistent development of food industries considering the distinctive characteristics of the lives of singles in order to satisfy their needs and improve the quality of their lives.
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