Inotropic agents are widely used to treat patients with low blood pressure and poor cardiac output. Drugs such as dobutamine and milrinone improve cardiac index in proportion with renal blood flow, but these improvements are not clearly associated with better clinical outcome or reduced mortality.

The Outcomes of a Prospective Trial of Intravenous Milrinone for Exacerbations of a Chronic Heart Failure (OPTIME-HF) trial reported that milrinone did not improve kidney function or overall survival in acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF) patients7). Low-dose dopamine (<5 µg·min-1·kg-1), commonly combined with diuretics, is believed to increase renal vasodilatation and renal blood flow, attenuate the effects of norepinephrine and aldosterone, and promote natriuresis via effects on dopamine-1 and 2 receptors8). A prospective, double-blind, randomized, controlled study concluded that low-dose dopamine can worsen renal perfusion in patients with acute renal failure, supporting a trend to abandon the routine use of low-dose dopamine in critically ill patients9). However, other studies challenge this conclusion. The Dopamine in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure (DAD-HF) Trial found that the combination of low-dose furosemide and low-dose dopamine is equally effective as high-dose furosemide and is also associated with improved renal function and potassium homeostasis10). Therefore, treatment with low-dose dopamine could be useful for CRS patients who require high-dose furosemide. A small randomized trial of levosimendan, a calcium sensitizing phosphodiesterase inhibitor, involving patients with heart failure showed an increase of 45.5% in estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) at 72 hours in the levosimendan group versus 0.1% GFR increase in those treated with dobutamine10). Although these results are promising, other clinical studies do not seem to support them. The Survival of Patients With Acute Heart Failure in Need of Intravenous Inotropic Support (SURVIVE) study showed that levosimendan did not significantly reduce all-cause mortality or affect any secondary clinical outcomes, and the value of this drug for treatment or prevention of CRS remains unclear11).

Diuretics and vasodilators play an important role in the early management of CRS and its complications of venous hypertension, increased intra-abdominal pressure, and renal congestion12); they also provide short-term symptomatic relief to CRS patients. However, in high doses, diuretics may aggravate electrolyte disturbances, decrease the effective circulating volume, disturb neurohormonal balance, and lead to decreased kidney function. Since both heart failure and renal dysfunction frequently require high-dose diuretic treatment, the administered dose must be carefully calculated to improve fluid balance and relieve symptoms without stimulating adverse physiologic effects.

Vasodilators can rapidly decrease ventricular filling pressures and central venous pressure, thereby reducing myocardial oxygen consumption and relieving pulmonary congestion. Intravenous nitroglycerine, a vasodilator commonly used to treat ADHF, may also reduce trans-renal perfusion pressure by decreasing venous pressure13). However, it is not clear whether the effect of nitroglycerine improved kidney function or long-term survival. Sodium nitroprusside produces significant arterial and venous vasodilatation through its action on cyclic guanosine monophosphate in vascular smooth muscle. In a nonrandomized trial, ADHF patients treated with sodium nitroprusside experienced favorable long-term clinical outcomes irrespective of inotropic support or kidney dysfunction14). However, thiocyanate accumulation is a dangerous potential side effect in patients with decreased kidney function.

Nesiritide, a recombinant form of human B-type natriuretic peptide, produces venous, arterial, and coronary vasodilatation, decreasing the cardiac preload and afterload and increasing cardiac output without direct inotropic effects. Investigations involving the safety and physiologic effects of nesiritide show mixed results. In one study of ADHF patients, nesiritide significantly increased the risk of worsening renal function, even at low doses (≤0.015 µg·kg-1·min-1)15). Nevertheless, subsequent studies suggested that this drug could still potentially be used in renal-protective therapy in ADHF, with appropriate doses (0.01 µg·kg-1·min-1)16,17). The Acute Study of Clinical Effectiveness of Nesiritide in Decompensated Heart Failure (ASCEND-HF) showed that nesiritide was not associated with a change in the rate of death and re-hospitalization, and had no unfavorable effects on kidney function compared with a placebo. Although nesiritide may not be recommended for routine use in most patients with acute heart failure, it could be used for short-term treatment in patients resistant to commonly prescribed drugs such as diuretics and vasodilators18).

Selective vasopressin V2 antagonists, such as tolvaptan and conivaptan, can facilitate free water clearance, and increase the serum sodium level without disturbing plasma potassium and magnesium levels19). The Efficacy of Vasopressin Antagonist in Heart Failure Outcome Study with Tolvaptan (EVEREST) trial investigated 4,133 patients with ADHF and found that early administration of tolvaptan was associated with decreased mean body weight and improved dyspnea. Although comparison of tolvaptan and placebo groups showed no difference in long-term outcomes20), vasopressin antagonists could relieve symptoms in selected patients with hyponatremia and oliguria. Increased adenosine levels in heart failure may exacerbate renal dysfunction. Drugs that selectively block adenosine A1-receptors and preserve adenosine A2-receptor activity can increase urine output while maintaining kidney function. In one study, patients who received rolofylline, a selective A1 receptor antagonist, showed a persistent increase in urine output without a decline in kidney function21). However, the PROTECT trial22) failed to demonstrate any functional benefit or improvement in outcome including death or re-hospitalization for cardiovascular or renal disease. Similarly, the REACH-UP trial-a multicenter, international, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of patients with ADHF-showed no clear beneficial effect of rolofylline on the clinical status and recent or acute worsening of renal function23). In conclusion, the efficacy of adenosine A1-receptor antagonists for treatment of CRS is still undecided and larger clinical trials are needed to resolve this issue.

RAAS inhibitors have been shown to reduce mortality in patients with cardiac failure, although the majority of these studies excluded patients with significant renal impairment6). In addition to improving survival in heart failure patients, these drugs also prevent progression of renal insufficiency in diabetic nephropathy and other forms of chronic kidney disease. The Cooperative North Scandinavian Enalapril Survival Study (CONSENSUS)24) of patients with severe heart failure included individuals with renal dysfunction whose serum creatinine concentrations did not exceed 3.4mg/dL. The subgroup of patients with serum creatinine levels higher than 2mg/dL exhibited an improvement in outcomes when treated with an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor. The ACE inhibitors or angiotensin II-receptor blockers (ARB) should be used cautiously in patients with CRS, considering the associated risks of hyperkalemia and transient increase in creatinine levels. The patients should be started on the lowest dose of RAAS blockers and kidney function should be closely monitored during initiation and up-titration in order to reduce the incidence of renal deterioration; this is especially important for dehydrated patients. Moreover, concomitant use of NSAIDs should be avoided6).

Spironolactone and eplerenone decrease morbidity and mortality in patients who develop heart failure after acute myocardial infarction. The RALES and EPHESUS trials25-26) demonstrated that, in patients already receiving standard medications for heart failure, adding low-dose spironolactone or eplerenone dramatically improved the outcome. Although several studies confirm that mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists have organ protective effects, patients with renal dysfunction are at greater risk of hyperkalemia. Thus, the long-term effects of mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists on renal outcome, mortality, and safety in patients with CRS requires further study.

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is a common occurrence in cardiac and renal failure. Interrupting this response is important to preventing progression of cardiovascular and renal disease. The β-blocker carvedilol has favorable effects on renal function in select patients with heart and kidney disease, and may offer a benefit over older formulations of β-blockers27). However, large randomized clinical trials on β-blocker treatment in heart failure excluded patients with severe renal dysfunction and did not consider their effects on renal outcome.

Although aspirin can potentially interfere with GFR through its actions on cyclooxygenase and renal prostaglandins, aspirin in low doses has long been considered safe for use in patients with kidney disease. This was confirmed in the first UK Heart and Renal Protection Study28), which showed that low-dose aspirin (100mg/d) did not significantly impair kidney function or increase the risk for renal replacement therapy, nor did it substantially increase the risk for major bleeding even in patients with risk factors for minor bleeding. The efficacy of other antithrombotic agents, such as clopidogrel and low-molecular weight heparins, in patients with decreased renal function is uncertain and needs further investigation29,30).

Anemia is present in over one-third of CRS patients31). Cardio-renal anemia syndrome (CRAS) refers to the simultaneous presence of anemia, heart failure, and renal failure, forming a pathologic triad that adversely impacts morbidity and mortality32). There is no consensus over the definition, significance, and management of CRAS. The role of erythropoiesis-stimulation agents (ESAs) in the treatment of CRAS is particularly controversial. Elevated serum erythropoietin is an adverse predictor of morbidity and mortality in heart failure33,34). However, erythropoietin receptor activation in the heart may be protective for apoptosis, fibrosis, and inflammation, providing a rationale for using ESAs in patients with heart failure35). A randomized double-blind controlled study showed that the correction of anemia with erythropoietin and oral iron over 1 year led to improvements in cardiac function, left ventricular remodeling, and B-type natriuretic peptide levels compared with oral iron therapy alone36). There is also increasing interest in the use of parenteral iron to correct anemia in patients with congestive heart failure. Two recent trials, FERRIC-HF and FAIR-HF37,38), demonstrated that patients treated with intravenous iron showed symptomatic improvement and increased exercise capacity independent of the effects on hemoglobin level. This data suggests that intravenous iron therapy is a potential option for the treatment of CRAS.