PDF
ePub
Citation
Print
Abstract
Cryptosporidium muris and C. parvum was reported by Tyzzer for the first time in 1907 and 1912, respectively from the mouse gastric gland and small intestine. The first human case was reported in 1976, and the importance of this protozoa as an opportunistic pathogen was recognized after the AIDS became an social issue as a debilitating disease all over the world in 1980s. Cryptosporidiosis provoke primarily diarrhea, and resulting in the most severe infections in immune-compromised individuals. C. parvum is a zoonotic pathogen which has a wide range of animal host as well as human. Cattle is known as the most important host among the animal, so they are important infection source as well. Infections can be established by drinking water, recreational water, and vegetables contaminated with C. parvum oocyts. But contact-borne infection with infected animals and patients can be possible. C. parvum oocysts are highly resistant to the harsh environmental conditions, so they can not be disinfected by conventional chlorine treatment method of the drinking water. Numerous reports of outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis related to drinking water in North America, UK, and Japan suggest that water-borne infection is the major way of transmission.
Figures and Tables
References
1. Tyzzer EE. A sporozoan found in the peptic glands of the common mouse. Exp Biol Med. 1907. 5:12–13.
2. Tyzzer EE. An extracellular Coccidium, Cryptosporidium muris (Gen. Et Sp. Nov.), of the gastric Glands of the Common Mouse. J Med Res. 1910. 23:487–510.3.
3. Tyzzer EE. Cryptosporidium parvum (sp. nov.), a coccidium found in the small intestine of the common mouse. Arch Protistenkd. 1912. 26:394–412.
4. Meisel JL, Perera DR, Meligro C, Rubin CE. Overwhelming watery diarrhea associated with a cryptosporidium in an immunosuppressed patient. Gastroenterology. 1976. 70:1156–1160.
5. Nime FA, Burek JD, Page DL, Holscher MA, Yardley JH. Acute enterocolitis in a human being infected with the protozoan Cryptosporidium. Gastroenterology. 1976. 70:592–598.
6. Koch KL, Phillips DJ, Aber RC, Current WL. Cryptosporidiosis in hospital personnel. Evidence for person-to-person transmission. Ann Intern Med. 1985. 102:593–596.
7. Millard PS, Gensheimer KF, Addiss DG, Sosin DM, Beckett GA, Houck-Jankoski A, Hudson A. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis from fresh-pressed apple cider. JAMA. 1994. 272:1592–1596.
8. Quiroz ES, Bern C, MacArthur JR, Xiao L, Fletcher M, Arrowood MJ, Shay DK, Levy ME, Glass RI, Lal A. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis linked to a foodhandler. J Infect Dis. 2000. 181:695–700.
9. Lee SU, Joung M, Nam T, Park WY, Yu JR. Quantitative evaluation of infectivity change of Cryptosporidium parvum after gamma irradiation. Korean J Parasitol. 2009. 47:7–11.
10. Campbell I, Tzipori AS, Hutchison G, Angus KW. Effect of disinfectants on survival of cryptosporidium oocysts. Vet Rec. 1982. 111:414–415.
11. LeChevallier MW, Norton WD, Lee RG. Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in surface water supplies. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1991. 57:2610–2616.
12. Kramer MH, Sorhage FE, Goldstein ST, Dalley E, Wahlquist SP, Herwaldt BL. First reported outbreak in the United States of cryptosporidiosis associated with a recreational lake. Clin Infect Dis. 1998. 26:27–33.
13. Ramirez NE, Ward LA, Sreevatsan S. A review of the biology and epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals. Microbes Infect. 2004. 6:773–785.
14. O'Donoghue PJ. Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis in man and animals. Int J Parasitol. 1995. 25:139–195.
15. Morgan-Ryan UM, Fall A, Ward LA, Hijjawi N, Sulaiman I, Fayer R, Thompson RC, Olson M, Lal A, Xiao L. Cryptosporidium hominis n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from Homo sapiens. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 2002. 49:433–440.
16. Katsumata T, Hosea D, Ranuh IG, Uga S, Yanagi T, Kohno S. Short report: possible Cryptosporidium muris infection in humans. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000. 62:70–72.
17. Morgan U, Weber R, Xiao L, Sulaiman I, Thompson RC, Ndiritu W, Lal A, Moore A, Deplazes P. Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium isolates obtained from human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals living in Switzerland, Kenya, and the United States. J Clin Microbiol. 2000. 38:1180–1183.
18. Pieniazek NJ, Bornay-Llinares FJ, Slemenda SB, da Silva AJ, Moura IN, Arrowood MJ, Ditrich O, Addiss DG. New cryptosporidium genotypes in HIV-infected persons. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999. 5:444–449.
19. Wilson RB, Holscher MA, Lyle SJ. Cryptosporidiosis in a pup. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1983. 183:1005–1006. 965
20. Morgan UM, Xiao L, Hill BD, O'Donoghue P, Limor J, Lal A, Thompson RC. Detection of the Cryptosporidium parvum "human" genotype in a dugong (Dugong dugon). J Parasitol. 2000. 86:1352–1354.
21. Widmer G, Akiyoshi D, Buckholt MA, Feng X, Rich SM, Deary KM, Bowman CA, Xu P, Wang Y, Wang X, Buck GA, Tzipori S. Animal propagation and genomic survey of a genotype 1 isolate of Cryptosporidium parvum. Mol Biochem Parasitol. 2000. 108:187–197.
22. Akiyoshi DE, Feng X, Buckholt MA, Widmer G, Tzipori S. Genetic analysis of a Cryptosporidium parvum human genotype 1 isolate passaged through different host species. Infect Immun. 2002. 70:5670–5675.
23. Abrahamsen MS, Templeton TJ, Enomoto S, Abrahante JE, Zhu G, Lancto CA, Deng M, Liu C, Widmer G, Tzipori S, Buck GA, Xu P, Bankier AT, Dear PH, Konfortov BA, Spriggs HF, Iyer L, Anantharaman V, Aravind L, Kapur V. Complete genome sequence of the apicomplexan, Cryptosporidium parvum. Science. 2004. 304:441–445.
24. Puiu D, Enomoto S, Buck GA, Abrahamsen MS, Kissinger JC, Crypto DB. the Cryptosporidium genome resource. Nucleic Acids Res. 2004. 32:D329–D331.
25. Xu P, Widmer G, Wang Y, Ozaki LS, Alves JM, Serrano MG, Puiu D, Manque P, Akiyoshi D, Mackey AJ, Pearson WR, Dear PH, Bankier AT, Peterson DL, Abrahamsen MS, Kapur V, Tzipori S, Buck GA. The genome of Cryptosporidium hominis. Nature. 2004. 431:1107–1112.
26. Lisle JK, Rose JB. Cryptosporidium contamination of water in the USA and UK: a mini-review. J Water. 1995. 44:103–177.
27. Mac Kenzie WR, Hoxie NJ, Proctor ME, Gradus MS, Blair KA, Peterson DE, Kazmierczak JJ, Addiss DG, Fox KR, Rose JB, et al. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. 1994. 331:161–167.
28. Adal KA, Sterling CR, Guerrant RL. Blaser MJ, Smith PD, Ravdin JL, Greenberg HB, Guerrant RL, editors. Cryptosporidium and related species. Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract. 1995. New York: Raven Press;1107–1128.
29. Fayer R. Cryptosporidium: a water-borne zoonotic parasite. Vet Parasitol. 2004. 126:37–56.
30. Chai JY, Shin SM, Yun JK, Yu JR, Lee SH. Experimental activation of cryptosporidiosis in mice by immunosuppression. Korean J Parasitol. 1990. 28:31–37.
31. Kang YK, Lee HK, Kim SW, Chi JG. Cryptosporidiosis in a leukemia child with severe diarrhea. Seoul J Med. 1995. 36:29–34.
32. Seo M, Huh S, Chai JY, Yu JR. An epidemiological survey on Cryptosporidium parvum infection of inhabitants in Chorwon-gun, Kangwon-do. Korean J Parasitol. 2001. 39:201–203.
33. Chai JY, Lee SH, Guk SM. An epidemiological survey of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in randomly selected inhabitants of Seoul and Chollanam-do. Korean J Parasitol. 1996. 34:113–119.
34. Yu JR, Lee JK, Seo M, Kim SI, Sohn WM, Huh S, Choi HY, Kim TS. Prevalence of cryptosporidiosis among the villagers and domestic animals in several rural areas of Korea. Korean J Parasitol. 2004. 42:1–6.
35. Lee JK, Song HJ, Yu JR. Prevalence of diarrhea caused by Cryptosporidium parvum in non-HIV patients in Jeollanam-do, Korea. Korean J Parasitol. 2005. 43:111–114.
36. Guk SM, Seo M, Park YK, Oh MD, Choe KW, Kim JL, Choi MH, Hong ST, Chai JY. Parasitic infections in HIV-infected patients who visited Seoul National University Hospital during the period 1995-2003. Korean J Parasitol. 2005. 43:1–5.
37. Kuhls TL, Mosier DA, Crawford DL, Griffis J. Seroprevalence of cryptosporidial antibodies during infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Clin Infect Dis. 1994. 18:731–735.
38. Leach CT, Koo FC, Kuhls TL, Hilsenbeck SG, Jenson HB. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in children along the Texas-Mexico border and associated risk factors. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2000. 62:656–661.
39. Lee JK, Han ET, Huh S, Park WY, Yu JR. A hospital-based serological survey of cryptosporidiosis in the Republic of Korea. Korean J Parasitol. 2009. 47:219–225.
40. Hancock CM, Rose JB, Callahan M. Crypto and giardia in US groundwater. J Am Water Works Assoc. 1998. 90:58–61.
41. Fayer R, Morgan U, Upton SJ. Epidemiology of Cryptosporidium: transmission, detection and identification. Int J Parasitol. 2000. 30:1305–1322.
42. Hoxie NJ, Davis JP, Vergeront JM, Nashold RD, Blair KA. Cryptosporidiosis-associated mortality following a massive waterborne outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Am J Public Health. 1997. 87:2032–2035.
43. Chalmers RM, Sturdee AP, Mellors P, Nicholson V, Lawlor F, Kenny F, Timpson P. Cryptosporidium parvum in environmental samples in the Sligo area, Republic of Ireland: a preliminary report. Lett Appl Microbiol. 1997. 25:380–384.
44. Freire-Santos F, Oteiza-Lopez AM, Vergara-Castiblanco CA, Ares-Mazas E, Alvarez-Suarez E, Garcia-Martin O. Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in bivalve molluscs destined for human consumption. J Parasitol. 2000. 86:853–854.
45. Fayer R, Trout JM, Lewis EJ, Santin M, Zhou L, Lal AA, Xiao L. Contamination of Atlantic coast commercial shellfish with Cryptosporidium. Parasitol Res. 2003. 89:141–145.
46. Jokipii L, Jokipii AM. Timing of symptoms and oocyst excretion in human cryptosporidiosis. N Engl J Med. 1986. 315:1643–1647.
47. Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, Aschman DJ, Holmberg SD. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1998. 338:853–860.
48. Arrowood MJ, Sterling CR. Isolation of Cryptosporidium oocysts and sporozoites using discontinuous sucrose and isopycnic Percoll gradients. J Parasitol. 1987. 73:314–319.
49. Chesnot T, Schwartzbrod J. Quantitative and qualitative comparison of density-based purification methods for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in turbid environmental matrices. J Microbiol Methods. 2004. 58:375–386.
50. Higgins JA, Trout JM, Fayer R, Shelton D, Jenkins MC. Recovery and detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from water samples using continuous flow centrifugation. Water Res. 2003. 37:3551–3560.
51. Ochiai Y, Takada C, Hosaka M. Detection and discrimination of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis in water samples by immunomagnetic separation-PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2005. 71:898–903.
52. Baron EJ, Schenone C, Tanenbaum B. Comparison of three methods for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in a low-prevalence population. J Clin Microbiol. 1989. 27:223–224.
53. Kehl KS, Cicirello H, Havens PL. Comparison of four different methods for detection of Cryptosporidium species. J Clin Microbiol. 1995. 33:416–418.
54. Graczyk TK, Cranfield MR, Fayer R. Evaluation of commercial enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and immunofluorescent antibody (FA) test kits for detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts of species other than Cryptosporidium parvum. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1996. 54:274–279.
55. Arrowood MJ, Sterling CR, Healey MC. Immunofluorescent microscopical visualization of trails left by gliding Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoites. J Parasitol. 1991. 77:315–317.
56. Snyder DE. Indirect immunofluorescent detection of oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum in the feces of naturally infected raccoons (Procyon lotor). J Parasitol. 1988. 74:1050–1052.
57. Chan R, Chen J, York MK, Setijono N, Kaplan RL, Graham F, Tanowitz HB. Evaluation of a combination rapid immunoassay for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium antigens. J Clin Microbiol. 2000. 38:393–394.
58. Garcia LS, Shimizu RY. Evaluation of nine immunoassay kits (enzyme immunoassay and direct fluorescence) for detection of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum in human fecal specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 1997. 35:1526–1529.
59. Spano F, Putignani L, McLauchlin J, Casemore DP, Crisanti A. PCR-RFLP analysis of the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein (COWP) gene discriminates between C. wrairi and C. parvum, and between C. parvum isolates of human and animal origin. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1997. 150:209–217.
60. Pedraza-Diaz S, Amar C, McLauchlin J. The identification and characterisation of an unusual genotype of Cryptosporidium from human faeces as Cryptosporidium meleagridis. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2000. 189:189–194.
61. Yu JR, Lee SU, Park WY. Comparative sensitivity of PCR primer sets for detection of Cryptosporidium parvum. Korean J Parasitol. 2009. 47:293–297.
62. Lee SU, Joung M, Ahn MH, Huh S, Song H, Park WY, Yu JR. CP2 gene as a useful viability marker for Cryptosporidium parvum. Parasitol Res. 2008. 102:381–387.
63. Spano F, Putignani L, Guida S, Crisanti A. Cryptosporidium parvum: PCR-RFLP analysis of the TRAP-C1 (thrombospondin-related adhesive protein of Cryptosporidium-1) gene discriminates between two alleles differentially associated with parasite isolates of animal and human origin. Exp Parasitol. 1998. 90:195–198.
64. Sulaiman IM, Xiao L, Yang C, Escalante L, Moore A, Beard CB, Arrowood MJ, Lal AA. Differentiating human from animal isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum. Emerg Infect Dis. 1998. 4:681–685.
65. Hsu BM, Wu NM, Jang HD, Shih FC, Wan MT, Kung CM. Using the flowcytometry to quantify the Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in water samples. Environ Monit Assess. 2005. 104:155–162.
66. Trotz-Williams LA, Martin SW, Martin D, Duffield T, Leslie KE, Nydam DV, Jamieson F, Peregrine AS. Multiattribute evaluation of two simple tests for the detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in calf faeces. Vet Parasitol. 2005. 134:15–23.
67. Amadi B, Mwiya M, Musuku J, Watuka A, Sianongo S, Ayoub A, Kelly P. Effect of nitazoxanide on morbidity and mortality in Zambian children with cryptosporidiosis: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2002. 360:1375–1380.
68. Gilles HM, Hoffman PS. Treatment of intestinal parasitic infections: a review of nitazoxanide. Trends Parasitol. 2002. 18:95–97.
69. Fayer R, Ellis W. Paromomycin is effective as prophylaxis for cryptosporidiosis in dairy calves. J Parasitol. 1993. 79:771–774.
70. Sreter T, Szell Z, Varga I. Anticryptosporidial prophylactic efficacy of enrofloxacin and paromomycin in chickens. J Parasitol. 2002. 88:209–211.
XML Download