Abstract
This article provides an overview of the major psychiatric disorders in the adolescence. Attention and disruptive behavior disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, alcohol and substance use disorders, and schizophrenia are the main diagnostic categories of adolescent psychiatric disorders. Attention and disruptive behavior disorders include attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct disorder. Mood disorders include depressive disorder and bipolar disorder, and anxiety disorders include obsessive compulsive disorder, social phobia, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Eating disorders and tic disorders are described in the category of other disorders. This article discusses the demographic and clinical characteristics of the aforementioned disorders, focusing on the adolescent-specific clinical characteristics and the possible co-morbid conditions of each disorder. Diagnostic and evaluative points of each disorder for clinicians are also highlighted.
References
1. Crain WC. The Theories of Development. 1983. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 1994. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Press.
4. Seoul Children & Adolescent Metropolitan Mental Health Center. Prevalence of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders in Seoul, Korea. 2005. Seoul: Seoul Children & Adolescent Metropolitan Mental Health Center.
5. Biederman J. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a life-span perspectives. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998. 59:S4–S15.
6. Nolan EE, Gadow KD, Sprafkin J. Teacher reports of DSM-IV ADHD, ODD, and CD symptoms in school children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001. 40:241–249.
7. Wilens TE, Biederman J, Spencer TJ. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Annu Rev Med. 2002. 53:113–131.
8. Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV. Age dependent decline of symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: impact of remission definition and symptom type. Am J Psychiatry. 2000. 157:816–818.
9. Kessler RC, Lenard AA, Barkley R, Biederman J, Conners CK, Faraone SV, Greenhill LL, Jaeger S, Secnik K, Spencer T, Bedirhan Ustun T, Zaslavsky AM. Patterns and predictors of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder persistence in adulthood: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2005. 57:1442–1451.
10. Biederman J, Newcorn J, Sprich S. Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with conduct, depressive, anxiety, and other disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 1991. 148:564–577.
11. Cho SC. Concept of Child Psychiatric Disorders. 2000. Seoul: Seoul National University Press.
12. Soderstrom H, Sjodin AK, Carlstedt A, Forsman A. Adult psychopathic personality with childhood-onset hyperactivity and conduct disorder: a central problem constellation in forensic psychiatry. Psychiatry Res. 2004. 121:271–280.
13. Lewinsohn PM, Rohde P, Seeley JR. Major depressive disorder in older adolescents: prevalence, risk factors, and clinical implications. Clinical Psychology Review. 1998. 18:765–794.
14. Costello EJ, Mustillo S, Erkanli A, Keeler G, Angold A. Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in child-hood and adolescence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003. 60:837–844.
15. Ha EH, Lee SJ, Oh KJ, Hong KE. Parent-adolescent agreement in the assessment of behavior problems of adolescents: comparison of factor structures of K-CBCL and YSR. Korean J Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998. 9:3–12.
16. Reinherz HZ, Giaconia RM, Pakiz B, Silverman AB, Frost AK, Lefkowitz ES. Psychosocial risks for major depression in late adolescence: a longitudinal community study. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. 1993. 32:1155–1163.
17. Carlson GA, Kashani JH. Phenomenology of major depression from childhood through adulthood: analysis of three studies. Am J Psychiatry. 1988. 145:1222–1225.
18. Ryan ND, Puig-Antich J, Ambrosini P, Rabinovich H, Robinson D, Nelson B, Iyengar S, Twomey J. The clinical picture of major depression in children and adolescents. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987. 44:854–861.
19. Goodyer IM, Wright C, Altham PM. Recent friendships in anxious and depressed school age children. Psychol Med. 1989. 19:165–174.
20. Rao U, Ryan ND, Birmaher B, Dahl RE, Williamson DE, Kaufman J, Rao R, Nelson B. Unipolar depression in adolescents: clinical outcome in adulthood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995. 34:566–578.
21. Kupfer DJ, Frank E, Grochocinski VJ, Cluss PA, Houck PR, Stapf DA. Demographic and clinical characteristics of individuals in a bipolar disorder case registry. J Clin Psychiatry. 2002. 63:120–125.
22. Perlis RH, Miyahara S, Marangell LB, Wisniewski SR, Ostacher M, DelBello MP, Bowden CL, Sachs GS, Nierenberg AA. STEP-BD Investigators. Long-term implications of early onset in bipolar disorder: data from the first 1000 participants in the systematic treatment enhancement program for bipolar disorder (STEP-BD). Biol Psychiatry. 2004. 55:875–881.
23. Kowatch RA, Youngstrom EA, Danielyan A, Findling RL. Review and meta-analysis of the phenomenology and clinical characteristics of mania in children and adolescents. Bipolar Disord. 2005. 7:483–496.
24. Leibenluft E, Charney DS, Towbin KE, Bhangoo RK, Pine DS. Defining clinical phenotypes of juvenile mania. Am J Psychiatry. 2003. 160:430–437.
25. Swedo S, Rapoport JL, Leonard H, Lenane M, Cheslow D. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents: clinical phenomenology of 70 consecutive cases. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989. 46:335–341.
26. Hanna GL. Demographic and clinical features of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995. 34:19–27.
27. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998. 37:S27–S45.
28. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Text Revision. 2000. 4th ed. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.
29. Biedel DC, Turner SM, Morris TL. Psychopathology of childhood social phobia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999. 38:643–650.
30. Liebowitz MR, Heimberg RG, Fresco DM. Social phobia or social anxiety disorder: what's in a name? Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000. 57:191–192.
32. Levy S, Vaughan BL, Knight JR. Office-based intervention for adolescent substance abuse. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2002. 49:329–343.
33. Rogers PD, Adger H Jr. Alcohol and adolescents. Adolesc Med. 1993. 4:295–304.
34. Harrison PA, Fullerson JA, Beebe TJ. DSM-IV substance use disorder criteria for adolescents: a critical examination based on a statewide school survey. Am J Psychiatry. 1998. 155:486–492.
35. Jaffe SL. Adolescent substance abuse and dual disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 1996. 5:1–261.
36. Kim JW, Park CS, Hwang JW, Shin MS, Hong KE, Cho SC, Kim BN. Clinical and genetic characteristics of Korean male alcoholics with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Alcohol. 2006. 41:407–411.
37. Russell AT, Bott L, Sammons C. The phenomenology of schizophrenia occurring in childhood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1989. 28:399–407.
38. Thomsen PS. Schizophrenia with childhood and adolescent onset: a nationwide register-based study. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1996. 94:187–193.
39. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with schizophrenia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001. 40:S4–S23.
40. American Psychiatric Association. Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 1997. 154:1–63.
41. Spencer EK, Campbell M. Children with schizophrenia: diagnosis, phenomenology, and pharmacotherapy. Schizophr Bull. 1994. 20:713–725.
42. Caplan R, Perdue S, Tanguay PE, Fish B. Formal thought disorder in childhood-onset schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1990. 31:169–177.
43. Caplan R, Guthrie D, Tang B, Nuechterlein KH, Asarnow RE. Thought disorder in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001. 40:965–972.
44. Bedwell JS, Keller B, Smith AK, Hamburger S, Kumra S, Rapoport JL. Why does postpsychotic IQ decline in childhood-onset schizophrenia? Am J Psychiatry. 1999. 156:1996–1997.
45. American Psychiatric Association Work Group on Eating Disorders. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with eating disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2000. 157:1–39.
46. Hoek HW. Fairburn CG, Brownell KD, editors. Distribution of eating disorders. Eating Disorders and Obesity: A Comprehensive Handbook. 2002. New York: Guildford Press;233–237.
47. Hoek HW, van Hoeken D. Review of the prevalence and incidence of eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord. 2003. 34:383–396.
48. Mehler PS, Andersen AE. Eating disorders: A guide to medical card and complications. 1999. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
49. Leckman JF, King RA, Cohen DJ. Leckman JF, Cohen DJ, editors. Tics and tic disorders. Tourette's Syndrome-Tics, Obsessions, Compulsions: Developmental Psychopathology and Clinical Care. 1999. New York: Wiley;23–42.
50. Scahill L, Tanneer C, Dure L. Cohen DJ, Jankovic J, Goetz C, editors. The epidemiology of tics and Tourette syndrome in children and adolescents. Tourette Syndrome and Associated Disorders. 2001. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins;261–271.
51. Snider LA, Seligman LD, Ketchen BR, Levitt SJ, Bates LR, Garvey MA, Swedo SE. Tics and problem behaviors in school children: prevalence, characterization, and associations. Pediatrics. 2002. 110:331–336.
52. Leckman JF, Zhang H, Vitale A, Lahnin F, Lynch K, Bondi C, Kim YS, Peterson BS. Course of tic severity in Tourette syndrome: the first two decades. Pediatrics. 1998. 102:14–19.