Jae-Eun Yoo; Jin-Su Kim; Sook Mee Son

doi:10.5720/kjcn.2017.22.6.507

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Yoo, Kim, and Son: Risk of Metabolic Syndrome according to Intakes of Vegetables and Kimchi in Korean Adults: Using the 5th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2010–2011

Research Article

Korean J Community Nutr 2017;22(6):507-519.

Published online: 20 January 2017

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5720/kjcn.2017.22.6.507

Risk of Metabolic Syndrome according to Intakes of Vegetables and Kimchi in Korean Adults: Using the 5th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2010–2011

Jae-Eun Yoo¹⁾, Jin-Su Kim¹⁾, Sook Mee Son^1),^†

¹⁾Department of Food Science & Nutrition, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Korea

^†Corresponding author Sook Mee Son Department of Food and Nutrition, 43, Jibong-ro, Bucheon-si, Gyeonggi-do 14662, Korea Tel: (02) 2164-4318 Fax: (02) 02-2164-4310 E-mail: sonsm@catholic.ac.kr ORCID: 0000-0002-7578-2882

Received 29 September 2017 Revised 19 December 2017 Accepted 19 December 2017

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Objectives

The objective of this study was to examine the relations between total vegetable and Kimchi intakes and the risk of metabolic syndrome (Mets) in Korean adults.

Methods

This study used dietary intake and health data of 6668 subjects aged 20 years and over from the 2010–2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). Daily intakes of total vegetables and Kimchi were assessed by 24-hour recall data. The odds ratio of Mets risk according to daily intake of vegetables and Kimchi was analyzed, respectively.

Results

The highest consumption of total vegetables was associated with a lower risk of abdominal obesity (multivariable adjusted OR=0.56, 95% CI: 0.33, 0.93) in men and lower risk of Mets (multivariable adjusted OR=0.67, 95% CI: 0.47, 0.94) in women. Kimchi consumption was not related to the risk of Mets in both men and in women. However, a higher intake of Kimchi was associated with an increased risk of elevated blood pressure (Q1 vs Q5, multivariable adjusted OR=1.34, 95% CI: 0.95, 1.90, P for trend= 0.0261) in women.

Conclusions

A higher intake of vegetables was associated with decreased risk of abdominal obesity and Mets in both men and women, respectively. A higher consumption of Kimchi was not related to the risk of Mets in both in men and in women. However, a higher intake of Kimchi was associated with an increased risk of elevated blood pressure in women.

Keywords: OR of metabolic syndrome, vegetable intake, Kimchi intake

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Table 1.

General characteristics of Korean adults according to quintiles of total vegetable intake

	Men (n=2628)			P¹⁾	Women (n=4040)			P¹⁾
	Quintiles of total vegetable intake				Quintiles of total vegetable intake
	Q1	Q3	Q5		Q1	Q3	Q5
N	525	526		525	808	808	808
Total vegetable intake (g/day)	132.2 ± 3.4	341.7 ± 1.4	741.4 ± 10.7	<0.0001	86.5 ± 1.7	251.7 ± 1.1	617.0 ± 8.4	<0.0001
Kimchi intake (g/day)	49.2 ± 2.9	136.9 ± 4.6	270.1 ± 59.8	<0.0001	30.7 ± 1.6	101.6 ± 2.9	190.8 ± 6.6	<0.0001
Age (years)	38.0 ± 0.8	41.4 ± 0.6	41.9 ± 50.6	<0.0001	39.2 ± 0.6	40.8 ± 0.5	43.3 ± 0.5	<0.0001
Household income status
High (%)²⁾	24.3	29.2	32.3	0.0208	25.1	26.8	33.6	0.0156
Education
College or higher(%)	37.5	40.9	45.1	0.2183	37.8	38.1	36.5	0.4827
Regular exercise
Yes (%)³⁾	41.8	44.7	46.3	0.2741	38.6	36.3	37.8	0.9051
Smoking status
Current smoker (%)	49.3	47.0	46.8	0.9344	8.1	7.6	4.1	0.1248
Monthly alcohol consumption
≥1 cup (%)	77.4	79.9	79.9	0.6850	46.0	47.7	43.3	0.7475
Frequency of eating out
≥1/day (%)	39.4	44.8	43.4	0.4231	18.0	16.6	14.6	0.7442
Frequency of fast food intake
≥1/week (%)	3.3	2.7	3.3	0.9787	2.4	0.9	1.5	0.0167

Values are expressed as mean ± SE for continuous variables and percentage for categorical variables.

Q1, Q3, Q5 are the lowest, middle, and highest quintiles, respectively

1) P value is P for trend determined by GLM for continuous variables and P for difference by Chi-square test for categorical variables.

2) High was defined as Quatile 4 evaluated with monthly household income.

3) Regular exercise was defined as walking at least 30 minutes a day, more than 5 times per week.

Table 2.

General characteristics of Korean adults participants according to quintiles of Kimchi intake

	Men (n=2628)			P¹⁾	Women (n=4040)			P¹⁾
	Quintiles of Kimchi intake				Quintiles of Kimchi intake
	Q1	Q3	Q5		Q1	Q3	Q5
N	525	526	524		808	805	808
Kimchi intake (g/day)	18.0 ± 0.9	118.9 ± 0.8	344.4 ± 56.3	<0.0001	7.0 ± 0.4	75.1 ± 0.5	260.5 ± 4.0	<0.0001
Total vegetable intake(g/day	y) 247.5 ± 8.7	352.4 ± 8.4	576.1 ± 10.8	<0.0001	201.9 ± 8.9	260.3 ± 9.0	444.9 ± 8.4	<0.0001
Age (years)	37.6 ± 0.7	40.7 ± 0.6	43.7 ± 50.6	<0.0001	38.8 ± 0.6	39.8 ± 0.5	43.1 ± 0.6	<0.0001
Household income status
High (%)²⁾	27.3	24.1	25.8	0.4225	32.6	30.8	26.4	0.0942
Education
College or higher (%)	42.7	40.6	41.7	0.9790	40.2	42.7	33.0	0.0238
Regular exercise
Yes (%)³⁾	47.9	41.9	44.8	0.0620	35.2	39.3	36.2	0.3402
Smoking status
Current smoker (%)	48.2	48.6	50.2	0.5757	8.3	8.3	5.2	0.1896
Monthly alcohol consumption
≥1 cup (%)	79.4	79.0	76.0	0.7898	46.7	47.0	41.9	0.3518
Frequency of eating out
≥1/day (%)	41.5	48.7	37.3	0.0344	18.5	19.1	11.8	0.0092
Frequency of fast food intake
≥1/week (%)	4.4	1.9	3.3	0.5477	3.4	1.7	0.8	0.0089

Values are expressed as mean°æSE for continuous variables and percentage for categorical variables. Q1, Q3, Q5 are the lowest, middle, and highest quintiles, respectively. 1) P value is P for trend determined by GLM for continuous variables and P for difference by Chi-square test for categorical variables. 2) High was defined as Quatile 4 evaluated with monthly household income. 3) Regular exercise was defined as walking at least 30 minutes a day, more than 5 times per week.

Table 3.

Energy and energy adjusted nutrient intake according to quintiles of total vegetable intake in Korean adults

	Men (n=2628)			P for trend¹⁾	Women (n=4040)			P for trend¹⁾
	Quintiles of total vegetable intake				Quintiles of total vegetable intake
	Q1	Q3	Q5		Q1	Q3	Q5
N	525	526	525		808	808	808
Nutrient intake
Energy (kcal/day)	1,998.2±532.5³⁾	2,374.8±345.3	2,894.9±536.8	<0.0001	1,442.6± 519.9	1,731.5±519.3	2,160.1±524.5	<0.0001
Carbohydrate (g)	340.5±554.9³⁾	370.4±554.4	377.9±555.4	<0.0001	283.8± 552.5	293.0±552.7	298.4±553.3	0.0019
Protein (g)	86.4±551.9³⁾	88.5±551.3	94.1±551.8	0.0698	59.8±550.8	64.7±550.8	68.9±551.0	<0.0001
Fat (g)	57.3± 551.4³⁾	51.8± 551.4	50.8±551.4	0.0139	42.1±550.9	37.1±550.9	37.0± 551.1	<0.0001
Calcium (mg)	485.7± 517.5³⁾	565.5±513.1	767.7± 521.4	<0.0001	405.8±510.7	462.3±559.2	613.6±513.2	<0.0001
Iron (mg)	13.4±550.4³⁾	17.5±550.5	22.7±550.7	<0.0001	10.8±550.3	12.9±550.3	18.2±550.8	<0.0001
Sodium (mg)	4,277.7±100.0³⁾	5,837.4±108.6	8,527.5±201.6	<0.0001	3,196.9±561.1	4,302.7±583.5	6,200.2±161.6	<0.0001
Potassium (mg)	2,824.1±554.4³⁾	3,449.3±545.5	4,491.6±562.1	<0.0001	2,265.2±547.1	2761.3± 534.1	3,725.9±560.5	<0.0001
Sodium/Potassium	1.6±550.0³⁾	1.8±550.0	2.0±550.0	<0.0001	1.6± 550.0	1.7±550.0	1.7±550.0	<0.0001
Potassium/Sodium	0.8±550.0³⁾	0.7±550.0	0.6±550.0	<0.0001	0.9±550.0	0.7±550.0	0.8± 550.0	<0.0001
VitaminA (μgRE)	770.4± 591.3³⁾	981.4±548.5	1319.6±549.2	<0.0001	548.0±526.6	700.5±524.2	1,293.9±546.7	<0.0001
Carotine (μg)	3,543.1±534.1³⁾	4,974.8±264.7	7,205.8±274.1	<0.0001	2,431.8±141.5	3,493.5±134.6	7,058.0±276.2	<0.0001
Retinol (μg)	188.4± 514.7³⁾	204.5±558.9	97.2± 513.2	<0.0001	115.7± 555.0	108.2± 512.0	97.6± 559.1	0.0586
Thiamine (mg)	1.5±550.0³⁾	1.6± 550.0	1.8±550.0	<0.0001	1.1±550.0	1.2± 550.0	1.4± 550.0	<0.0001
Riboflavin (mg)	1.5±550.0³⁾	1.5±550.0	1.7± 550.0	0.0002	1.1±550.0	1.1±550.0	1.3±550.0	<0.0001
Niacin (mg)	19.6±550.4³⁾	20.9±550.3	23.1±550.5	<0.0001	13.3±550.2	14.9± 550.2	17.2±550.3	<0.0001
VitaminC (mg)	81.8±554.1³⁾	112.7±554.0	170.1±554.7	<0.0001	78.5±553.8	106.0±554.4	155.3± 554.6	<0.0001

Values are presented as mean ± SE. Q1, Q3, Q5 are the lowest, middle, and highest quintiles, respectively. 1) P for trend from GLM unadjusted for energy intake and adjusted for energy for other nutrients.

Table 4.

Energy and energy adjutsetd nutrient intake according to quintiles of Kimchi intake in Korean adults.

	Men (n=2628)			P for trend¹⁾	Women (n=4040)			P for trend¹⁾
	Quintiles of Kimchi intake				Quintiles of Kimchi intake
	Q1	Q3	Q5		Q1	Q3	Q5
N	525	526	524		808	805	808
Nutrient intake
Energy (kcal/day)	2,304.8 ± 36.3	2,369.1 ± 35.9	2,610.5 ± 36.3	<0.0001	1,633.1 ± 22.9	1,755.5 ± 22.4	1,910.3 ± 22.1	<0.0001
Carbohydrate (g)	341.0 ± 5.5	357.6 ± 4.2	383.4 ± 4.7	<0.0001	278.8 ± 3.0	289.1 ± 2.2	302.3 ± 2.4	<0.0001
Protein (g)	89.2 ± 1.8	91.4 ± 2.2	88.3 ± 1.3	0.6300	64.1 ± 0.8	64.5 ± 0.8	65.6 ± 0.9	0.0342
Fat (g)	58.3 ± 1.4	52.9 ± 1.3	48.1 ± 1.2	<0.0001	41.9 ± 0.9	39.4 ± 0.8	35.2 ± 0.8	<0.0001
Calcium (mg)	535.1 ± 18.5	569.5 ± 15.0	670.0 ± 18.1	<0.0001	449.1 ± 10.7	481.0 ± 13.2	540.3 ± 10.9	<0.0001
Iron (mg)	15.4 ± 0.5	18.2 ± 0.6	20.0 ± 0.8	<0.0001	12.6 ± 0.3	13.4 ± 0.3	15.4 ± 0.7	0.0004
Sodium (mg)	4,687.5 ± 135.8	6,042.9 ± 117.1	8,388.1 ± 189.8	<0.0001	3,377.3 ± 73.5	4,023.1 ± 83.0	6,296.1 ± 117.9	<0.0001
Potassium (mg)	3,100.3 ± 52.8	3,472.0 ± 55.1	3,958.7 ± 56.1	<0.0001	2,605.8 ± 51.9	2,772.9 ± 43.8	3,261.7 ± 54.1	<0.0001
Sodium/ Potassium	1.6 ± 0.0	1.8 ± 0.0	2.2 ± 0.0	<0.0001	1.4 ± 0.0	1.6 ± 0.0	2.0 ± 0.0	<0.0001
Potassium/ Sodium	0.8 ± 0.0	0.6 ± 0.0	0.5 ± 0.0	<0.0001	1.0 ± 0.0	0.8 ± 0.0	0.6 ± 0.0	<0.0001
Vitamin A (µgRE)	901.5 ± 62.7	971.0 ± 83.2	1,045.5 ± 46.0	0.1650	704.7 ± 33.5	776.3 ± 27.4	899.3 ± 32.5	0.0016
Carotine (µg)	4,349.2 ± 356.3	4,972.7 ± 490.6	5,557.1 ± 244.2	0.0066	3,377.9 ± 182.1	3,836.4 ± 151.2	4,740.9 ± 193.7	<0.0001
Retinol (µg)	184.8 ± 19.7	188.8 ± 57.0	104.6 ± 14.1	0.0144	116.1 ± 8.7	128.7 ± 14.3	91.1 ± 6.3	0.0035
Thiamine (mg)	1.5 ± 0.0	1.6 ± 0.0	1.7 ± 0.0	0.0026	1.1 ± 0.0	1.2 ± 0.0	1.3 ± 0.0	<0.0001
Riboflavin (mg)	1.5 ± 0.1	1.5 ± 0.0	1.5 ± 0.0	0.9826	1.1 ± 0.0	1.2 ± 0.0	1.2 ± 0.0	0.0119
Niacin (mg)	20.4 ± 0.4	20.8 ± 0.4	21.4 ± 0.4	0.2541	14.8 ± 0.2	15.2 ± 0.2	15.7 ± 0.3	0.0470
VitaminC (mg)	92.2 ± 3.5	105.0 ± 3.3	142.1 ± 4.2	<0.0001	95.2 ± 4.2	102.9 ± 3.5	132.3 ± 4.4	<0.0001

Table 5.

Parameters according to quintiles of total vegetable intake in Korean adults

	Men (n=2628)			P for trend¹⁾	Women (n=4040)			P for trend¹⁾
	Quintiles of total vegetable intake				Quintiles of total vegetable intake
	Q1	Q3	Q5		Q1	Q3	Q5
N	525	526	525		808	808	808
Parameters
Body mass index	23.3 ± 0.2	23.9 ± 0.2	24.2 ± 0.2	0.0025	22.5 ± 0.2	23.0 ± 0.1	23.1 ± 0.1	0.1251
Waist circumference (cm)	83.3 ± 0.2	83.6 ± 0.2	82.5 ± 0.3	0.0026	76.4 ± 0.2	76.6 ± 0.2	76.3 ± 0.2	0.0212
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	120.3 ± 0.7	119.2 ± 0.7	119.5 ± 0.7	0.2344	113.4 ± 0.5	112.4 ± 0.5	112.3 ± 0.6	0.2981
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	79.3 ± 0.5	79.1 ± 0.5	79.7 ± 0.5	0.0110	72.7 ± 0.4	72.8 ± 0.4	73.3 ± 0.4	0.0933
Fasting plasma glucose (mg/dl)	96.7 ± 0.9	95.4 ± 0.6	95.8 ± 1.4	0.1817	90.9 ± 0.4	90.6 ± 0.3	91.6 ± 0.6	0.1024
Triglyceride (mg/dl)	150.8 ± 4.8	153.4 ± 5.6	146.4 ± 7.2	0.0497	104.5 ± 2.8	100.3 ± 2.5	100.1 ± 2.8	0.9750
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dl)	50.9 ± 0.6	51.1 ± 0.6	49.6 ± 0.6	0.3594	56.9 ± 0.5	56.2 ± 0.4	56.9 ± 0.5	0.2779

Values are presented as mean ± SE. Q1, Q3, Q5 are the lowest, middle, and highest quintiles, respectively. 1) P for trend from GLM.

Table 6.

Parameters according to quintiles of Kimchi intake in Korean adults.

	Men (n=2628)			P for trend¹⁾	Women (n=4040)			P for trend¹⁾
	Quintiles of Kimchi intake				Quintiles of Kimchi intake
	Q1	Q3	Q5		Q1	Q3	Q5
N	525	526	524		808	805	808
Parameters
Body mass index	23.4 ± 0.2⁴⁾	23.5 ± 0.2	24.0 ± 0.2	0.0358	22.5 ± 0.1	22.8 ± 0.1	22.9 ± 0.2	0.0010
Waist circumference (cm)	83.5 ± 0.2	83.3 ± 0.2	82.8 ± 0.3	0.0000	76.3 ± 0.2	76.3 ± 0.2	76.1 ± 0.2	0.0002
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg)	119.7 ± 0.7	119.4 ± 0.7	120.6 ± 0.8	0.0145	113.0 ± 0.5	113.9 ± 0.6	112.5 ± 0.6	0.0241
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg)	78.7 ± 0.6	79.9 ± 0.5	79.6 ± 0.6	0.0234	72.5 ± 0.4	73.6 ± 0.4	73.6 ± 0.4	0.0039
Fasting plasma glucose (mg/dl)	95.1 ± 0.8	96.3 ± 0.8	95.2 ± 1.2	0.1257	90.4 ± 0.4	90.9 ± 0.4	91.3 ± 0.5	0.0122
Triglyceride (mg/dl)	141.4 ± 4.2	162.5 ± 6.7	152.5 ± 6.5	0.0012	100.5 ± 2.3	100.2 ± 2.4	103.4 ± 2.4	0.1294
HDL-cholesterol (mg/dl)	50.6 ± 0.6	49.3 ± 0.5	50.6 ± 0.5	0.3732	57.2 ± 0.5	57.4 ± 0.5	56.7 ± 0.5	0.1905

Values are presented as mean ± SE Q1, Q3, Q5 are the lowest, middle, and highest quintiles, respectively. 1) P for trend from GLM.

Table 7.

The odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for metabolic syndrome and its components according to quintiles of total vegetable intake in Korea adults

Metabolic syndrome	Men (n=2628)			P for trend²⁾	Women (n=4040)			P for trend²⁾
	Quintiles of total vegetable intake				Quintiles of total vegetable intake
	Q1	Q3	Q5		Q1	Q3	Q5
N	525	526	525		808	808	808
Waist circ.>90 cm (men), >80 cm (women)
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.33 (0.95, 1.88)	1.39 (0.96, 2.00)	0.0834	1.00	1.09 (0.87, 1.37)	1.14 (0.88, 1.50)	0.8010
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.30 (0.93, 1.83)	1.35 (0.94, 1.94)	0.1167	1.00	1.04 (0.82, 1.32)	0.98 (0.74, 1.30)	0.2679
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.85 (0.49, 1.44)	0.56 (0.33, 0.93)	0.0153	1.00	0.91 (0.61, 1.36)	0.81 (0.53, 1.25)	0.1843
SBP≥130 or DBP≥85 mmHg
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.29 (0.95, 1.75)	1.32 (0.96, 1.82)	0.0667	1.00	1.01 (0.72, 1.41)	1.28 (0.93, 1.77)	0.0338
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.19 (0.87, 1.62)	1.21 (0.87, 1.68)	0.2359	1.00	1.01 (0.68, 1.49)	1.14 (0.79, 1.63)	0.3219
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.02 (0.73, 1.43)	0.96 (0.65, 1.40)	0.8671	1.00	0.96 (0.64, 1.42)	1.11 (0.72, 1.60)	0.3224
Fasting glucose ≥100 mg/dl
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.14 (0.79, 1.63)	1.12 (0.77, 1.63)	0.1971	1.00	0.97 (0.67, 1.41)	1.27 (0.91, 1.78)	0.0840
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.02 (0.70, 1.49)	1.00 (0.68, 1.48)	0.5362	1.00	0.95 (0.65, 1.38)	1.15 (0.81, 1.62)	0.3169
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.85 (0.58, 1.24)	0.75 (0.49, 1.13)	0.4858	1.00	0.87 (0.59, 1.29)	1.09 (0.74, 1.62)	0.4015
HDL<40 mg/dl (men), <50 mg/dl (women)
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.82 (0.54, 1.26)	1.21 (0.79, 1.86)	0.4100	1.00	1.16 (0.90, 1.49)	0.91 (0.71, 1.17)	0.3425
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.81 (0.53, 1.24)	1.19 (0.78, 1.82)	0.4617	1.00	1.13 (0.87, 1.46)	0.84 (0.66, 1.09)	0.1014
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.79 (0.51, 1.22)	1.25 (0.81, 1.94)	0.2850	1.00	1.15 (0.87, 1.51)	0.91 (0.68, 1.21)	0.4694
Triglycerides≥150 mg/dl
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.22 (0.91, 1.64)	1.47 (1.10, 1.97)	0.0021	1.00	0.99 (0.71, 1.36)	0.76 (0.55, 1.06)	0.3607
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.17 (0.87, 1.56)	1.39 (1.04, 1.87)	0.0081	1.00	0.96 (0.68, 1.34)	0.67 (0.47, 0.94)	0.0575
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.00 (0.73, 1.37)	1.12 (0.80, 1.58)	0.2664	1.00	0.93 (0.66, 1.33)	0.71 (0.49, 1.03)	0.3039
Metabolic syndrome
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.73 (1.18, 2.53)	1.74 (1.17, 2.57)	0.0008	1.00	0.87 (0.64, 1.18)	0.88 (0.61, 1.27)	0.8151
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.62 (1.11, 2.38)	1.62 (1.09, 2.40)	0.0032	1.00	0.84 (0.60, 1.18)	0.76 (0.81, 1.12)	0.2657
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.35 (0.86, 2.12)	1.18 (0.75, 1.85)	0.1273	1.00	0.70 (0.75, 1.04)	0.62 (0.40, 0.97)	0.1444

¹⁾ Adjustment for age, BMI, household income (>high), education (>college or higher), regular exercise (walking at least 30 minutes a day, more than 5 times) (yes/no), current smoking status (current smoker) (yes/no), monthly alcohol consumption (≥1 cups per month) (yes/no), eating out times (≥1 time/week) (yes/no), frequency of fast food intake (≥1 time/week) (yes/no), energy intake 2) P for trend from GLM

Table 8.

The odd ratios and 95% confidence intervals for metabolic syndrome and its components according to quintiles of Kimchi intake in Korea adults

Metabolic syndrome	Men (n=2628)			P for trend²⁾	Women (n=4040)			P for trend²⁾
	Quintiles of Kimchi intake				Quintiles of Kimchi intake
	Q1	Q3	Q5		Q1	Q3	Q5
N
Waist circ.>90 cm (men), >80 cm (women)
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.94 (0.65, 1.37)	1.12 (0.76, 1.63)	0.4838	1.00	1.33 (1.04, 1.71)	1.48 (1.15, 1.89)	0.0079
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.92 (0.63, 1.33)	1.07 (0.73, 1.55)	0.6427	1.00	1.34 (1.02, 1.75)	1.29 (0.99, 1.69)	0.1771
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.82 (0.50, 1.34)	0.53 (0.32, 0.89)	0.0233	1.00	1.33 (0.88, 2.01)	1.29 (0.87, 1.91)	0.3907
SBP≥130 or DBP≥85 mmHg
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.18 (0.86, 1.63)	1.37 (0.98, 1.91)	0.0305	1.00	1.40 (0.99, 1.96)	1.59 (1.16, 2.19)	0.0004
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.10 (0.80, 1.52)	1.18 (0.84, 1.65)	0.1997	1.00	1.58 (1.08, 2.29)	1.14 (1.03, 2.02)	0.0113
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.06 (0.76, 1.47)	1.03 (0.72, 1.46)	0.6252	1.00	1.52 (1.03, 2.23)	1.34 (0.95, 1.90)	0.0261
Fasting glucose ≥100 mg/dl
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.34 (0.96, 1.88)	1.23 (0.86, 1.76)	0.1382	1.00	1.13 (0.77, 1.64)	1.45 (1.00, 2.10)	0.0557
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.24 (0.87, 1.76)	1.01 (0.70. 1.45)	0.7293	1.00	1.14 (0.77, 1.66)	1.30 (0.89, 1.90)	0.2063
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.16 (0.80, 1.69)	0.85 (0.58, 1.23)	0.6100	1.00	1.06 (0.71, 1.58)	1.14 (0.76, 1.71)	0.5133
HDL<40 mg/dl (men), <50 mg/dl (women)
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.97 (0.66, 1.42)	0.96 (0.65, 1.43)	0.4951	1.00	0.92 (0.72, 1.18)	1.08 (0.83, 1.39)	0.5068
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.95 (0.65, 1.40)	0.93 (0.63, 1.39)	0.3282	1.00	0.91 (0.70, 1.17)	1.00 (0.77, 1.30)	0.9432
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	0.95 (0.64, 1.41)	0.82 (0.55, 1.24)	0.1802	1.00	0.87 (0.67, 1.14)	0.94 (0.71, 1.26)	0.8812
Triglycerides≥150 mg/dl
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.55 (1.17, 2.06)	1.58 (1.19, 2.09)	0.0012	1.00	0.92 (0.64, 1.33)	1.21 (0.88, 1.67)	0.1562
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.49 (1.12, 1.98)	1.45 (1.09, 1.93)	0.0093	1.00	0.92 (0.63, 1.34)	1.07 (0.77, 1.47)	0.5564
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.49 (1.11, 2.01)	1.22 (0.88, 1.68)	0.1886	1.00	0.88 (0.60, 1.29)	1.03 (0.74, 1.45)	0.5864
Metabolic syndrome
Unadjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.27 (0.85, 1.88)	1.51 (1.01, 2.26)	0.0132	1.00	1.07 (0.72, 1.58)	1.41 (0.99, 1.99)	0.0698
Age-adjusted OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.20 (0.81, 1.79)	1.33 (0.89, 2.00)	0.0658	1.00	1.11 (0.73, 1.70)	1.25 (0.87, 1.81)	0.3590
Multivariable¹⁾ OR (95% CI)	1.00	1.07 (0.69, 1.66)	0.96 (0.62, 1.49)	0.7418	1.00	0.97 (0.59, 1.59)	0.99 (0.65, 1.51)	0.9649

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