Journal List > J Bacteriol Virol > v.43(3) > 1034087

Kim, Seo, and Park: Variation and Characterization of Bacterial Communities Contaminating Two Saunas Operated at 64°C and 76°C

Abstract

This study was performed to analyze 6 day-term variations in bacterial communities contaminating the floor of two dry saunas that were operated at 64°C (low temp) and 76°C (high temp). Bacteria were sampled daily from the saunas for 6 days from Monday to Saturday. Genomic DNA was isolated directly from bacteria-collected cotton swabs. The diversity of the bacterial communities collected from the saunas was analyzed using thermal gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE). The total numbers of DNA bands separated by TGGE for bacteria collected from the low temp and high temp sauna were 20 and 18, respectively, during the 6 days. Seven of 20 bacteria in the low temp sauna and eight of 18 bacteria in the high temp sauna were detected more than three times over the 6 experimental days. Twelve of the 26 bacterial genera contaminating the saunas were cross detected. Bacteria belonging to the genera Moraxella and Acinetobacter were selectively detected in the low temp sauna, whereas those belonging to Aquaspirillum, Chromobacterium, Aquabacterium, Gulbenkiania, Pelomonas, and Aquitalea were selectively detected in the high temp sauna. Three species of bacteria contaminating both the low and high temp saunas were thermophile or thermoduric. The results indicate that the sauna-contaminating bacteria may have been transferred from outside the saunas by user traffic but did not inhabit the saunas.

REFERENCES

1). Lee JY, Park DH. Characterization of bacterial community contaminating floor of a hot and dry sauna. J Bacteriol Virol. 2012; 42:313–20.
crossref
2). Bott TL, Brock TD. Bacterial growth rates above 90°C in Yellowstone hot springs. Science. 1969; 164:1411–2.
crossref
3). Brock TD, Freeze H. Thermus aquaticus gen. n. and sp. n., a non-sporulating extreme thermophile. J Bacteriol. 1969; 98:289–97.
4). Walsh C, Meade J, McGill K, Fanning S. The biodiversity of thermoduric bacteria isolated from whey. J Food Safe. 2012; 32:255–61.
crossref
5). Banykó J, Vyletelová M. Determining the source of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus licheniformis isolated from raw milk, pasteurised milk and yoghurt. Lett Appl Microbiol. 2009; 48:318–23.
6). Brock TD, Boylen LK. Presence of thermophilic bacteria in laundry and domestic hot-water heaters. Appl Microbiol. 1973; 25:72–6.
crossref
7). Pask-Hughes R, Williama RA. Extremely thermophilic gram-negative bacteria from hot tap water. J Gen Microbil. 1975; 88:321–8.
crossref
8). Oshima T. Imahori K. Description of Thermus thermophilus (Yoshida and Oshima) comb. Nov. A nonsporulating thermophilic bacterium from a Japanese thermal spa. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1974; 24:102–12.
9). Ward J, Cockson A. Studies on a thermophilic bacillus: its isolation, properties, and temperature coefficient of growth. J Bacteriol. 1972; 112:1040–2.
crossref
10). Metzger WJ, Patterson R, Fink J, Semerdjian R, Roberts M. Sauna-takers disease. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis due to contaminated water in a home sauna. JAMA. 1976; 236:2209–11.
crossref
11). Scheldeman P, Pil A, Herman L, De Vos P, Heyndrickx M. Incidence and diversity of potentially highly heat-resistant spores isolated at dairy farms. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2005; 71:1480–94.
crossref
12). Murai R, Yoshida N. Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius endospores function as nuclei for the formation of single calcite crystals. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2013; 79:3085–90.
13). Yokoya F, York GK. Effect of several environmental conditions on the “thermal death rate” of endospores of aerobic, thermophilic bacteria. Appl Microbiol. 1965; 13:993–9.
crossref
14). Martin PA, Travers RS. Worldwide abundance and distribution of Bacillus thuringiensis isolates. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1989; 55:2437–42.
15). Stefanic P, Mandic-Mulec I. Social interactions and distribution of Bacillus subtilis pherotypes at microscale. J Bacteriol. 2009; 191:1756–64.
16). Cheung PY, Kinkle BK. Mycobacterium diversity and pyrene mineralization in petroleum-contaminated soils. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2001; 67:2222–9.
17). Kimura H, Asada R, Masta A, Naganuma T. Distribution of microorganisms in the subsurface of the manus basin hydrothermal vent field in Papua New Guinea. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003; 69:644–8.
crossref
18). Vary PS, Biedendieck R, Fuerch T, Meinhardt F, Rohde M, Deckwer WD, et al. Bacillus megaterium–from simple soil bacterium to industrial protein production host. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2007; 76:957–67.
19). Ferreira AC, Nobre MF, Rainey FA, Silva MT, Wait R, Burghardt J, et al. Deinococcus geothermalis sp. nov. and Deinococcus murrayi sp. nov., two extremely radiation-resistant and slightly thermophilic species from hot springs. Int J Syst Bacteriol. 1997; 47:939–47.
20). Scott RM. Bacterial endocarditis due to Neisseria flava. J Pediatr. 1971; 78:673–5.
21). Schmidt B, Mulder IE, Musk CC, Aminov RI, Lewis M, Stokes CR, et al. Establishment of normal gut microbiota is compromised under excessive hygiene conditions. PLoS One. 2011; 6:E28284.
crossref
22). Staley JT, Irgens RL, Brenner DJ. Enhydrobacter aerosaccus gen. nov., sp. nov., a gas-vacuolated, facultatively anaerobic, heterotrophic rod. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 1987; 37:289–91.
23). Nishimura Y, Ino T, Lizuka H. Acinetobacter radioresistens sp. nov. isolated from cotteon and soil. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 1988; 38:209–11.
24). Koburger JA, May SO. Isolation of Chromobacterium spp. from foods, soil, and water. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1982; 44:1463–5.
25). Chen WM, Cho NT, Yang SH, Arun AB, Young CC, Sheu SY. Aquabacterium limnoticum sp. nov., isolated from a freshwater spring. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2012; 62:698–704.
26). Yoon JH, Kim IG, Oh TK. Acinetobacter marinus sp. nov. and Acinetobacter seohaensis sp. nov., isolated from sea water of the Yellow Sea in Korea. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2007; 17:1743–50.
27). Vaz-Moreira I, Nobre MF, Nunes OC, Manaia CM. Gulbenkiania mobilis gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from treated municipal wastewater. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2007; 57:1108–12.
28). Gomila M, Bowien B, Falsen E, Moore ER, Lalucat J. Description of Pelomonas aquatica sp. nov. and Pelomonas puraquae sp. nov., isolated from industrial and haemodialysis water. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2007; 57:2629–35.
29). Nelson YM, Lion LW, Ghiorse WC, Shuler ML. Production of biogenic Mn oxides by Leptothrix discophora SS-1 in a chemically defined growth medium and evaluation of their Pb adsorption characteristics. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1999; 65:175–80.
30). Lau HT, Faryna J, Triplett EW. Aquitalea magnusonii gen. Nov., sp. nov., a novel Gram-negative bacterium isolated from a humic lake. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2006; 56:867–71.
31). Gong XC, Liu ZS, Guo P, Chi CQ, Chen J, Wang XB, et al. Bacteria in crude oil survived autoclaving and stimulated differentially by exogenous bacteria. PLoS One. 2012; 7:e40842.
crossref
32). Loper JE, Lindow SE. A biological sensor for iron available to bacteria in their habitats on plant surfaces. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1994; 60:1934–41.
crossref
33). Pearson HA. Rumen microbial ecology in mule deer. Appl Microbiol. 1969; 17:819–24.
crossref
34). Pernthaler J, Amann R. Fate of heterotrophic microbes in pelagic habitats: focus on populations. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2005; 69:440–61.
crossref
35). Romero-Steiner S, Witek T, Balish E. Adherence of skin bacteria to human epithelial cells. J Clin Microbiol. 1990; 28:27–31.
crossref
36). Bowers RM, Sullivan AP, Costello EK, Collett JL Jr, Knight R, Fierer N. Source of bacteria in outdoor air across cities in the midwestern United State. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2011; 77:6350–6.
37). Garcia SL, Jangid K, Whitman WB, Das KC. Transition of microbial communities during the adaption to anaerobic digestion of carrot waste. Bioresour Technol. 2011; 102:7249–56.
crossref
38). Taylor WI, Schelhart D. Effect of temperature on transport and plating media for enteric pathogens. J Clin Microbiol. 1975; 2:281–6.
crossref
39). Ratkowsky DA, Olley J, McMeekin TA, Ball A. Relationship between temperature and growth of bacterial cultures. J Bacteriol. 1982; 149:1–5.
40). Ratkowsky DA, Lowry RK, McMeekin TA, Stokes AN, Chandler RE. Model for bacterial culture growth rate throughout the entire biokinetic temperature range. J Bacteriol. 1983; 154:1222–6.
crossref
41). Nakasaki K, Sasaki M, Shoda M, Kubota H. Characteristics of mesophilic bacteria isolated during thermophilic composting of sewage sludge. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1985; 49:42–5.
crossref
42). Brock TD, Freeze H. Thermus aquaticus gen. n. and sp. n., a nonsporulating extreme thermophile. J Bacteriol. 1969; 98:289–97.
43). Verduin CM, Hol C, Fleer A, Van Dijk H, Van Belkum A. Moraxella catarrhalis: from emerging to established pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002; 15:125–44.
44). Vela AI, Arroyo E, Araqón V, Sánchez-Porro C, Latre MV, Cerdà-Cuéllar M, et al. Moraxella pluranimalium sp. nov., isolated from animal specimens. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2009; 59:671–4.
45). Kong HH, Oh J, Deming C, Conlan S, Grice EA, Beatson MA, et al. Temporal shifts in the skin microbiome associated with disease flares and treatment in children with atopic dermatitis. Genome Res. 2012; 22:850–9.
crossref
46). Morita RY. Psychrophilic bacteria. Bacteriol Rev. 1975; 39:144–67.
crossref
47). Toledo-Arana A, Dussurget O, Nikitas G, Sesto N, Guet-Revillet H, Balestrino D, et al. The Listeria transcriptional landscape from saprophytism to virulence. Nature. 2009; 459:950–6.

Figure 1.
Thermal gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) profiles of 16S-rDNA isolated from bacteria that were collected from floors of two different saunas operated at 64°C and 76°C. Each number on electrophoresis gel indicates DNA band originated from a specific bacterial species. Abbreviations: M, Monday; T, Tuesday; W, Wednesday; Th, Thursday; F, Friday; S, Saturday.
jbv-43-195f1.tif
Table 1.
Bacterial species identified based on sequence homology of 16S-rDNA extracted from electrophoresis gel (figure 1, 64°C). Thermal gradient gel electrophoresis was performed with the DNA extracted from the bacteria daily collected from low temp sauna from Monday to Saturday.
Bacteria (Genus or species) Accession code Homology (%) Week: band number in TGGE gel
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
Bacterium ODP-193 AB084523 98 1
Uncultured bacterium HE649228 98 1 1 1
Enhydrobacter aerosaccus JX845725 98 2 2 2 2
Neisseria flava HF558370 98 3
Moraxella cuniculi AJ247221 99 1
Moraxella sp. KC119125 98 2
Uncultured bacterium JN883765 98 3 1 3 4 3 3
Moraxella pluranimalium NR042666 98 4 4
Acinetobacter radioresistens JF919868 97 5 4 4
Acinetobacter sp. GU430989 98 6 5 5
Bacillus megaterium JX311358 99 2 6
Acinetobacter seohaensis EU420936 98 5 3 5 7
Uncultured bacterium JF237408 99 4
Acinetobacter beijerinckii JN644620 98 5
Uncultured Acinetobacter JN866218 99 6 8
Leptothrix sp. JQ946028 97 6
Uncultured bacterium AB732642 98 7 7 9 7
Uncultured bacterium JF661828 97 8
Deinococcus geothermalis EU600161 97 9 6
Uncultured bacterium JN882031 99 10 7

* Bold letters: Bacteria selectively detected in 64°C sauna

Table 2.
Bacterial species identified based on sequence homology of 16S-rDNA extracted from electrophoresis gel (figure 1, 76°C). Thermal gradient gel electrophoresis was performed with the DNA extracted from the bacteria collected from high temp sauna from Monday to Saturday.
Bacteria (Genus or species) Accession code Homology (%) Week: band number in TGGE gel
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
Bacterium ODP-193 AB084523 98 1 1 1 1
Enhydrobacter aerosaccus JX845725 98 2 2 2 2
Neisseria flava HF558370 98 3 3 3 3 2 1
Uncultured bacterium JN883765 98 4 4 4 4 3 2
Aquaspirillum serpens AB680863 100 5 5 4 3
Acinetobacter radioresistens JF919868 97 6 6 5 5 4
Acinetobacter sp. GU430989 98 6 6 5
Bacillus megaterium JX311358 99 7 7 6
Chromobacterium sp. HQ234407 98 5
Uncultured Aquabacterium sp. JQ288705 98 6
Gulbenkiania mobilis NR042548 97 8
Pelomonas sp. AB730488 97 7 7
Leptothrix sp. JQ946028 97 8 8
Acinetobacter beijerinckii JN644620 98 7 9 8 9 9
Uncultured bacterium AB732642 98 8 10 9 10 10
Aquitalea sp. JN208179 97 11
Deinococcus geothermalis EU600161 97 12 7
Uncultured bacterium JN882031 99 8

* Bold letters: Bacteria selectively detected in 76°C sauna

Table 3.
General characters of bacterial genus or species identified based on sequence homology of DNA extracted from electrophoresis gel (Fig. 1). DNA used for thermal gradient gel electrophoresis was directly extracted from bacteria collected from 64°C and 76°C of dry saunas.
Bacteria (Accession code) Detection days (LTS/HTS) General characters or released information
Bacterium ODP-193-27 1/4 A thermophile capable of growing at 60∼90°C, which were found in subsurface of hydrothermal vent (17)
Enhydrobacter aerosaccus 3/4 A heterotrophic, mesophilic, non-pathogenic, gas-vacuolated, and facultative anaerobic bacterium (22)
Neisseria flava 1/6 An non-pathogenic, mesophilic, and anaerobic bacterium that is often found in the upper respiratory tract surface in humans (20)
Moraxella sp. 1/0 A mesophilic and opportunistically infective bacterium, and some species belonging to this genus are commensal of mucosal surface (43)
Moraxella pluranimalium 2/0 Gram-negative, mesophilic, and heterotrophic bacterium that was isolated from sheep and pig (44)
Acinetobacter radioresistens 3/3 A mesophilic, non-spore-forming, aerobic, and soil-dwelled bacterium (23)
Chromobacterium sp. 0/1 A mesophile that inhabits in soil and natural water is sometime is found in foods (24)
Uncultured Aquabacterium sp. 0/1 It has been isolated and found from drinking water and freshwater spring (25)
Bacillus megaterium 2/3 This bacterium is able to survive in some extreme conditions such as desert environments due to the spores it forms. (18)
Acinetobacter seohaensis 4/0 A Gram-negative, non-motile, and mesophilic bacterium that was isolated from sea water of the Yellow Sea in Korea (26)
Deinococcus geothermalis 2/2 This is an extremely radiation resistant, moderately thermophilic bacterium (19)
Gulbenkiania mobilis 0/1 A mesophilic bacterium that was isolated from treated municipal wastewater (27)
Pelomonas sp. 0/1 A mesophilic, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming bacterium that was isolated from industrial wastewater and haemodialysis water (28)
Leptothrix sp. 1/2 A filamentous and mesophilic bacterium that resides in organic matter-plentiful aquatic environments (29)
Aquitalea sp. 0/1 A mesophilic, Gram-negative, and non-spore-forming bacterium that was isolated from humic-lake samples (30)
Uc. Bacterium (HE649228) 3/0 A bacterium that was detected in a uranium mine tailing sediment-water interface at Key Lake, Northern Saskatchewan
Uc. Bacterium (JN883765) 6/6 A bacterium belonging to normal gut microflora in human (21)
Uc. Bacterium (JF237408) 1/0 A bacterium belonging to human skin microflora related with atopic dermatitis (45)
Uncultured Acinetobacter 2/0 A Gram-negative, non-motile, and mesophilic bacterium that was isolated from Tibetan Plateau.
Uc. Bacterium (AB732642) 4/5 A bacterium detected in arsenic sediment
Uc. Bacterium (JF661828) 1/0 A bacterium belonging to microbial community in anaerobic digestion of carrot waste (37)
Uc. Bacterium (JN882031) 2/1 A bacterium that was found in crude oil (31)

* UC, Uncultured bacterium; LTS, Low temp sauna; HTS, High temp sauna

TOOLS
Similar articles