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Abstract
The sleep homeostatic response significantly affects the state of anesthesia. In addition, sleep recovery may occur during anesthesia, either via a natural sleep-like process to occur or via a direct restorative effect. Little is known about the effects of isoflurane anesthesia on sleep homeostasis. We investigated whether 1) isoflurane anesthesia could provide a sleep-like process, and 2) the depth of anesthesia could differently affect the post-anesthesia sleep response. Nine rats were treated for 2 hours with ad libitum sleep (Control), sleep deprivation (SD), and isoflurane anesthesia with delta-wave-predominant state (ISO-1) or burst suppression pattern-predominant state (ISO-2) with at least a 1-week interval. Electroencephalogram and electromyogram were recorded and sleep-wake architecture was evaluated for 4 hours after each treatment. In the post-treatment period, the duration of transition to slow-wave-sleep decreased but slow wave sleep (SWS) increased in the SD group, but no sleep stages were significantly changed in ISO-1 and ISO-2 groups compared to Control. Different levels of anesthesia did not significantly affect the post-anesthesia sleep responses, but the deep level of anesthesia significantly delayed the latency to sleep compared to Control. The present results indicate that a natural sleep-like process likely occurs during isoflurane anesthesia and that the post-anesthesia sleep response occurs irrespective to the level of anesthesia.
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Fig. 1.
Duration ratio of each episode to total recording time in rats during the treatment period and the post-treatment period. In the treatment period, the rats were given ad libitum sleep, sleep deprivation, and delta wave-predominant state or burst suppression pattern-predominant state of isoflurane anesthesia (‘Control’, ‘SD’, ‘ISO-1’ and ‘ISO-2’ groups, respectively) during the treatment period. In the treatment period, ISO-1 and ISO-2 groups received 1.5-hour anesthesia followed by 30-minute washout, and the duration ratio of the delta-predominant state was 0.91 (0.1) and burst suppression-predominant state was 0.95 (0.1). Vigilance stages during 4-hour post-treatment period following 2-hour treatments were scored as 4 episodes using electroencephalogram and electromyogram: wakefulness (W), transition to slow-wave-sleep (tSWS), slow-wave-sleep (SWS) and rapid-eye-movement sleep (REMS). Data were expressed as mean (SD), n=9 per group. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni test. ∗p< 0.05 and ∗∗p<0.01 vs. Control group, and #p<0.05 and ##p<0.01 vs. SD group.
Fig. 2.
Number of episodes per hour in rats during the treatment period and the post-treatment period. The rats were given ad libitum sleep, sleep deprivation, and delta wave-predominant state or burst suppression pattern-predominant state of isoflurane anesthesia (‘Control’, ‘SD’, ‘ISO-1’ and ‘ISO-2’ groups, respectively) during the treatment period. In the treatment period, delta predominant state occurred at 2.72 (2.7) and burst suppression predominant state occurred at 0.85 (0.5). Vigilance stages during 4-hour post-treatment period following 2-hour treatments were scored as 4 episodes using electroencephalogram and electromyogram: wakefulness (W), transition to slow-wave-sleep (tSWS), slow-wave-sleep (SWS) and rapid-eye-movement sleep (REMS). Data were expressed as mean (SD), n=9 per group. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni test. ∗p< 0.05 and ∗∗p<0.01 vs. Control group, and #p<0.05 and ##p<0.01 vs. SD group.
Fig. 3.
Mean episode duration during total recording time in rats during the treatment period and the post-treatment period. In the treatment period, the rats were given ad libitum sleep, sleep deprivation, and delta wave-predominant state or burst suppression pattern-predominant state of isoflurane anesthesia (‘Control’, ‘SD’, ‘ISO-1’ and ‘ISO-2’ groups, respectively). In the treatment period, the values of the delta-predominant state was 3006 (2448.1) and that of the burst suppression-predominant state was 4701.43 (1365.4). Vigilance stages during the 4-hour post-treatment period following 2-hour treatments were scored as 4 episodes using electroencephalogram and electromyogram: wakefulness (W), transition to slow-wave-sleep (tSWS), slow-wave-sleep (SWS) and rapid-eye-movement sleep (REMS). Data were expressed as mean (SD), n=9 per group. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni test. ∗∗p<0.01 vs. Control group, and #p<0.05 and ##p<0.01 vs. SD group.
Fig. 4.
The latency to 1 hour of sleep in rats after ad libitum sleep, sleep deprivation and isoflurane anesthesia according to groups. The rats were given ad libitum sleep, sleep deprivation, and delta wave-predominant state or burst suppression pattern-predominant state of isoflurane anesthesia (group ‘Control’, ‘SD’, ‘ISO-1’ and ‘ISO-2’, respectively) during the treatment period. Vigilance stages during the 4-hour post-treatment period following 2-hour treatments were scored as 4 episodes using electroencephalogram and electromyogram: wakefulness (W), transition to slow-wave-sleep (tSWS), slow-wave-sleep (SWS) and rapid-eye-movement sleep (REMS). In order to quantify the sleep pressure, the latency to 1-hour of sleep was calculated: the amount of time from 14:00 to the accumulation of total of 360 epochs (i.e., 1 hour) scored as sleep (without regard to the tSWS, SWS, REMS). Data were expressed as mean (SD bar), n=9 per group. Data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni test. ∗∗p<0.01 vs. Control group, and ##p<0.01 vs. SD group.
Fig. 5.
Time course of the duration ratio at each episode in rats during the treatment period and the post-treatment period. The rats were given ad libitum sleep, sleep deprivation, and delta wave-predominant state or burst suppression pattern-predominant state of isoflurane anesthesia (‘Control’, ‘SD’, ‘ISO-1’ and ‘ISO-2’ groups, respectively) during the treatment period. Vigilance stages during the 4-hour post-treatment period following 2-hour treatments were scored as 4 episodes using electroencephalogram and electromyogram: wakefulness (W), transition to slow-wave-sleep (tSWS), slow-wave-sleep (SWS) and rapid-eye-movement sleep (REMS). Data were expressed as mean (SD), n=9 per group. Data were analyzed by two-factor repeated measures ANOVA followed by a Bonferroni test. Statistical results are not marked in the figure but are described in the text.
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