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Abstract
With the improvement of high-throughput genomic technology such as microarray and next-generation sequencing over the last ten to twenty year, we have come to know that the portion of the genome responsible for protein coding constitutes just approximately 1.5%. The remaining 98.5% of the genome not responsible for protein coding have been regarded as ‘junk DNA'. More recently, however, ‘Encyclopedia of DNA elements project' revealed that most of the junk DNA were transcribed to RNA regardless of being translated into proteins. In addition, many reports support that a lot of these non-coding RNAs play a role in gene regulation. In fact, there are various functioning short non-coding RNAs including rRNA, tRNA, small interfering RNA, and micro RNA. Mechanisms of these RNAs are relatively well-known. Until recently, however, little is known about long non-coding RNAs which consist of 200 nucleotides or more. In this article, we will review the representative long non-coding RNAs which have been reported to be related to gastrointestinal cancers and to play a certain role in its pathogenesis.
References
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Table 1.
Long Noncoding RNAs Associated with Human Gastrointestinal Cancer
| Source | LncRNA | Expression of lncRNA in cancer tissuea | Associate clinical factor with high level of lncRNA | Biological or molecular functions | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Esophageal cancer | H19 | Increased | Loss of imprinting | 57 | |
| Esophageal cancer (squamous cell carcinoma) | HOTAIR | Increased | Depth of invasion (↑), lymph node metastasis (↑), distant metastasis (↑), TNM stage (↑), poor differentiation (↑), poor prognosis (↑) | Downregulation of HOTAIR: cell proliferation (↓), colony formation (↓), migration (↓) | 58 |
| Esophageal cancer (adenocarcinoma) | HNF1A-AS1 | Increased | Downregulation of HNF1A-AS1: cell proliferation (↓), anchorage-independent growth (↓), S-phase entry (↓), migration (↓), invasion (↓) | 59 | |
| Esophageal cancer (adenocarcinoma) | AFAP1-AS1 | Increased | Downregulation of AFAP1-AS1: cell proliferation (↓), colony-forming ability (↓), migration (↓), invasion (↓) | 60 | |
| Stomach cancer | H19 | Increased | Upregulation of H19: cell proliferation (↑) Downregulation of H19: cell apoptosis (↑) | 61 | |
| Stomach cancer | HOTAIR | Increased | Lymph node metastasis (↑), TNM stage (↑), poor prognosis (↑) | Downregulation of HOTAIR: cell invasiveness (↓), reversion of epithelial-mesen-chymal transition (↑) | 62,63 |
| Stomach cancer | CCAT1 | Increased | Depth of invasion (↑), lymph node metastasis (↑), distant metastasis (↑), CCAT1 expression: correlation with c-Myc | Upregulation of CCAT1: cell proliferation (↑) & migration (↑) | 64 |
| Stomach cancer | MEG3 | Decreased | Depth of invasion (↓), TNM stage (↓), tumor size (↓), poor prognosis (↓) | Downregulation of MEG3: cell proliferation (↑) | 65 |
| Stomach cancer | AC096655.1–002 | Decreased | Depth of invasion (↓), lymph node metastasis (↓), distant metastasis (↓), TNM stage (↓) | 66 | |
| Colorectal cancer | HOTAIR | Increased | Poor differentiation (↑), depth of invasion (↑), liver metastasis (↑), poor prognosis (↑) | Upregulation of HOTAIR: invasion (↑) Downregulation of HOTAIR: invasion (↓) | 67 |
| Colorectal cancer | MALAT-1 | Upregulation of MALAT-1: cell proliferation (↑), invasion (↑) | 68 | ||
| Colorectal cancer | CCAT1 | Increased | 69,70 | ||
| Colorectal cancer | CCAT2 | Increasedb | Upregulation of CCAT2: migration (↑), metastasis (↑) | 71 | |
| Downregulation of CCAT2: invasion (↓) Upregulation of Myc, miR-17–5p, and miR-20a by CCAT2 | |||||
| Colorectal cancer | uc.73 | Decreased | Poor prognosis (↓) | 72 | |
| Colorectal cancer | uc.388 | Decreased | Proximal colon cancer (↑) | 72 | |
| Colorectal cancer | LincRNA-p21 | Decreased | Depth of invasion (↑), TNM stage (↑), vascular invasion (↑) | 73 | |
| Colorectal cancer | PCAT-1 | Increased | Distant metastasis (↑), poor prognosis (↑) | 74 | |
| Colorectal cancer | LOC285194 | Decreased | Tumor size (↓), distant metastasis (↓), TNM stage (↓), poor prognosis (↓) | 75 | |
| Hepatocellular carcinoma | HULC | Increased | Incidence of hepatitis B virus infection (↑) | Downregulation of HULC: altered the expression of several hepatocellular carcinoma associated genes | 76,77 |
| Hepatocellular carcinoma | HOTAIR | Increased | Lymph node metastasis (↑), poor prognosis (↑) | Downregulation of HOTAIR: cell proliferation (↓), MMP-9 (↓), VEGF (↓) | 78 |
| Hepatocellular carcinoma | LncRNA-HEIH | Increased | Cirrhosis (↓), poor prognosis (↑) | Key role in G0/G1 arrest Associated with EZH2 | 79 |
| Hepatocellular carcinoma | MALAT-1 | Increased | Tumor number (↑), poor prognosis (↑) | Downregulation of MALAT-1: cell viability (↓), motility (↓), invasion (↓), apoptosis (↑) | 80 |
| Hepatocellular carcinoma | MVIH | Increased | Microvascular invasion (↑), TNM stage (↑), poor prognosis (↑) | Upregulation of MVIH: tumor number (↑), intrahepatic metastasis (↑) | 81 |
| Hepatocellular carcinoma | TUC338 | Downregulation of TUC338: cell growth (↓) | 82 | ||
| Pancreatic cancer | HOTAIR | Increased | Downregulation of HOTAIR: cell proliferation (↓), invasion (↓), apoptosis (↑) | 83 |
LncRNA, long non-coding RNA; TNM, tumor-node-metastasis; HOTAIR, HOX transcript antisense RNA; HNF1A-AS1, hepatic nuclear factor 1 alpha-antisense RNA 1; AFAP1-AS1, actin filament associated protein 1-antisense RNA 1; CCAT1, colon cancer-associated transcript; MEG3, maternally expressed gene 3; MALAT-1, metastasis associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1; CCAT2, colon cancer associated transcript-2; lincRNA-p21, long intergenic non-coding RNA-p21; PCAT-1, prostate cancer-associated non-coding RNA transcripts 1; HULC, highly up-regulated in liver cancer; MMP-9, matrix metalloproteinase-9; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor protein; lncRNA-HEIH, long non-coding RNA high expression in hepatocellular carcinoma; EZH2, enhancer of Zeste homolog 2; MVIH, long non-coding RNA associated with microvascular invasion in hepatocellular carcinoma; TUC338, transcript including uc.338.
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