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INTRODUCTION
During the college years, young adults undergo significant lifestyle changes, transitioning to independence and assuming responsibility for their dietary choices. These habits formed during college are often carried into adulthood, exerting lasting effects on individuals' health and that of their future families [1]. This population is less likely to cook at home and more likely to eat out and rely on take-ways and delivery foods or convenient meals. Barriers such as time constraints, financial limitations, and inadequate cooking skills hinder the adoption of healthier dietary behaviors among college students [2]. Concerns arise over the dietary habits of college students, who frequently exhibit behaviors such as meal skipping, unbalanced nutrient intake, and an increased prevalence of overweight and obesity [34]. With growing concerns over the health implications of these patterns, national data also indicate that only about one in ten college students meet recommended daily fruit and vegetable intake [5].
Recognizing the potential of nutrition education with cooking labs to address these challenges, scholars advocate for programs aimed at enhancing cooking skills and nutrition knowledge [67]. Previous studies examined the association between cooking and healthy eating [89]. Given that college represents a crucial developmental stage for self-identity formation, there is an urgent need for educational curricula tailored to the unique nutritional and culinary needs of college students [1]. Moreover, campus food environments play a pivotal role in shaping dietary behavior. Campus environments often provide limited access to healthy options and cooking opportunities. Economic constraints are common among college students, making it challenging to make high-quality food choices [10].
In terms of educational approaches, curricula centered on nutrition with cooking labs have demonstrated greater effectiveness in improving cooking skills and enhancing diet quality. Research indicates that college students experience a more significant increase in cooking confidence through hands-on cooking demonstrations compared to non-interactive methods [11]. Teaching kitchens play a crucial role in providing students with practical experiences to learn and practice new culinary skills alongside their peers. According to the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), individuals learn behaviors through observation and modeling, with positively reinforced behaviors being more likely to be repeated [12], thereby supporting previous evidence.
Hands-on experiences, particularly within a group or peer context, offer valuable opportunities for students to enhance their skills in a supportive environment. Despite the evident benefits, studies evaluating the effectiveness of educational interventions, especially those integrating hands-on cooking classes among college students, remain limited [1314]. Furthermore, while these interventions have demonstrated positive impacts on attitudes and preferences, short-term cooking classes have shown to be insufficient in inducing lasting changes in cooking frequency or actual behavior [14]. This emphasizes the necessity for longer-term interventions aimed at translating enhanced cooking skills and confidence into sustained dietary behavior change.
Furthermore, existing research has primarily focused on direct modifications in cooking and eating behaviors, overlooking broader psychosocial benefits that may arise [15]. To address these gaps, this study aims to assess the impact of a semester-long nutrition course with a teaching cooking component on attitudes and behaviors related to cooking and eating among undergraduate college students. This study not only measures changes in cooking behaviors but also explores the psychosocial outcomes often overlooked in previous research. Additionally, the study seeks to explore the life lessons participants derive from the nutrition and culinary course beyond cooking and eating behaviors.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
Study design and procedures
This study employed a pre-experimental design with a pre- and post-intervention approach, without a control group, to assess changes in cooking and eating behaviors among college students following their participation in an undergraduate nutrition and culinary course. Participants were recruited from undergraduate classes at a university in the southeastern United States over 4 consecutive semesters from Fall 2018 to Spring 2020. A total of 73 students participated.
The 15-week (semester-long) course was comprised of 4-h classes, including 2-h lectures and a 2-h lab each week. The curriculum encompassed topics ranging from basic nutrition, diverse cooking techniques, food storage and safety, meal planning, and budgeting strategies. The lectures and labs were designed based on the information in text books [1617]. The detailed weekly schedule of the course is in Table 1.
Table 1
Weekly schedule of the nutrition with cooking class
At the beginning of each semester, researchers explained the study’s purpose, inviting students to participate and providing them with consent forms. Only students who consented to participate were granted access to the online survey comprising pre- and post-intervention assessments. To be eligible, participants needed to be at least 18 yrs old and be enrolled as undergraduate students at the university. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville (UTK IRB-18-04665-XM).
Quantitative data
Quantitative data were collected to evaluate changes in participants’ attitudes and behaviors related to cooking and eating, while qualitative data aimed to capture detailed experiences and potential benefits of the nutrition and culinary course
A self-administered questionnaire was developed following a comprehensive literature review on the effectiveness of cooking programs and cooking-related behaviors [81819]. To measure cooking attitude, participants responded to 6 statements (e.g., "I like to cook") using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) [18]. Cooking confidence was assessed through 3 statements (e.g., "I can cook a nutritious meal without spending a lot of money") using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from "extremely confident" to "not at all confident." Cooking skills were evaluated based on performance in basic cooking techniques or skills, such as reading a standardized recipe, using knife skills, and demonstrating cooking methods. These questions were adapted from validated surveys [819], with responses summarized on a 5-point Likert scale, yielding scores ranging from 12 to 60 points for cooking skills. While the variables of cooking attitude and cooking confidence were the mean score of the items comprising each variable, the cooking skill variable was the summated score of the 12 items. The reliability of these scales in the study sample was deemed satisfactory, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from 0.70 to 0.93 [20].
To assess changes in behaviors, participants reported the frequency of cooking and their usual daily intake of food groups, such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains [21]. Cooking frequency was determined by responses to the question, "How often did you cook in the last 4 weeks?" with response options ranging from "not at all (1)" to "about every day (5)." Participants reported their intake of fruits and vegetables using a scale ranging from less than one cup (1) to more than 5 cups daily (7), measured in one-cup increments. Similarly, the whole grains intake was recorded on a scale ranging from less than 0.5 ounces (1) to more than 3 ounces daily (7), measured in 0.5-ounce increments. These measurements allowed for a comprehensive assessment of participants’ dietary habits and cooking practices. Additionally, participants provided demographic information including gender, age, year in college, ethnic/racial identity, living arrangement, and whether they have taken a nutrition- related course before.
Qualitative data and coding process
To explore participants’ individual experiences and potential life-related benefits from the course, an essay question was included in the post-survey, prompting participants to share one life lesson learned and its impact on their attitudes or behaviors. The qualitative data obtained from these responses were coded using NVivo 10, a qualitative data analysis software [22], to facilitate systematic analysis. The qualitative analysis process involved independent coding of responses by 2 researchers, utilizing grounded theory techniques to identify patterns and themes [23]. Initially, responses were subjected to iterative open-coding processes, allowing for the generation of codes that comprehensively covered participants’ experiences. This iterative approach ensured thorough exploration of the data and facilitated the identification of emergent themes. Since the qualitative analysis mainly targeted the life-related and psychosocial benefits beyond mere cooking skills and healthy eating that were covered in the quantitative analysis, a screening process was done to ensure the focus remained on the life-related and psychosocial benefits, and 34 responses out of the total 73 responses were excluded from the analysis. These excluded responses were predominantly focused on cooking skills and healthy eating behaviors, aligning with the research objective of exploring the broader impacts of the course. After the screening process, a total of 39 responses were analyzed for further steps.
Data analysis
Quantitative data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical software package (Version 25.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Descriptive statistics and paired sample t-tests were used to examine changes in the mean scores of attitudes and behaviors pre- and post-intervention. The significance level was set at 5%.
For qualitative data analysis, inter-coder reliability was assessed through stability and reproducibility testing. Stability refers to the consistency of results obtained by the same coder after recoding the same data [24]. The stability test showed a remarkable result of 90%, indicating high consistency in coding outcomes [24]. Reproducibility measures the level of agreement among coders, indicating inter-coder reliability. The reproducibility test yielded a score of 92%, signifying excellent agreement among coders [24]. Any discrepancies in coding results were resolved through discussion among researchers and coders to reach a consensus.
RESULTS
Demographic characteristics of participants
Table 2 presents the characteristics of the study participants. The majority of participants were female students (63%), identified as White/Caucasian (72.6%), and resided off-campus (82.2%). Additionally, 51% were seniors, and 52% had no previous coursework in nutrition.
Table 2
General characteristics of participants
Cooking attitude, confidence, and skills
Following the intervention, participants demonstrated significant improvements in cooking attitude, confidence, and skills (P < 0.001, Table 3). The mean score for cooking attitude increased from 3.89 at pre-test to 4.29 at post-test, measured on a 5-point Likert scale. Specifically, there was a noteworthy increase in cooking confidence, with mean scores at baseline and post-intervention surveys being 2.89 and 3.99, respectively measured on a 5-point Likert scale. Similarly, participants exhibited a significant enhancement in cooking skills post-intervention, with pre-test scores averaging 39.46 and post-test scores averaging 52.82, based on responses summed up on a 5-point Likert scale, which yielded total scores ranging from 12 to 60 points for cooking skills. This increase indicates a substantial improvement in participants’ cooking abilities as a result of the intervention.
Table 3
Changes in cooking attitude, confidence, and skills after the intervention
Values are presented as mean ± SD. Significant differences between pre- and post-test were analyzed using paired samples t-tests.
1)Cooking attitude: Measured as the mean score of items on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 represents “strongly disagree” and 5 represents “strongly agree.” Higher scores reflect a more positive attitude toward cooking.
2)Cooking confidence: Assessed by the mean score of items on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 indicates “not at all confident” and 5 indicates “extremely confident.” Higher scores reflect greater confidence in cooking.
3)Cooking skills: Calculated as the total score from a series of skill-based questions, measured on a 5-point Likert scale. Total scores range from 12 to 60, with higher scores indicating greater proficiency in cooking skills.
*P < 0.001.
Cooking frequency and food consumption
Participation in the nutrition and culinary education led to an increase in participants’ cooking frequency, as depicted in Table 4. Participants reported an increase in cooking frequency, with pre-test scores averaging 3.11 and post-test scores averaging 3.41 (P < 0.05). There was a notable increase in fruit intake, with pre-test scores of 2.68 rising to 3.77 post-intervention (P < 0.001). Similar to fruit intake, vegetable consumption improved significantly, with pre-test scores averaging 2.74 and post-test scores averaging 3.85 (P < 0.001). There was no significant change in in whole grains consumption, with pre-test scores of 3.01 and post-test scores of 3.05.
Table 4
Changes in cooking frequency and food consumption after the intervention
Values are presented as mean ± SD. Significant differences between pre- and post-test were analyzed using paired samples t-tests. The t-values were calculated from paired samples t-tests comparing pre-test and post-test means.
1)Cooking frequency was self-reported by participants on a scale from “not at all” (1) to “about every day” (5) over the last 4 weeks.
2)Fruits and vegetables intake were reported on a scale from 1 to 7 cups daily, with 1 representing less than one cup and 7 representing more than 5 cups.
3)Whole grains intake was recorded on a scale from 1 to 7 ounces daily, with 1 representing less than 0.5 ounces and 7 representing more than 3 ounces.
*P < 0.05, **P < 0.001.
Life lessons beyond cooking from qualitative data
Out of 39 respondents analyzed, insights were gathered to capture life lessons derived from the nutrition and culinary course. From the remaining responses, 4 major themes emerged, highlighting individual experiences and the perceived life and psychological benefits of the course. Table 5 summarizes the key themes and keywords identified from respondents’ reflections on their learning experiences.
Table 5
Themes and keywords derived from participants’ reflections on life lessons
Theme 1: Time management
Fifteen participants highlighted the acquisition of time management skills as a significant outcome of the course. Through meal planning, preparation, and cooking exercises, participants learned to prioritize tasks, allocate resources efficiently, and optimize their kitchen time. Practical demonstrations and guided exercises facilitated insights into effective time-saving techniques. By learning to streamline their cooking processes and organize their cooking tasks, participants were able to balance the demands of daily life. This proficiency in time management not only enhanced their productivity in the kitchen but also translated into their lives. Participants expressed how mastering timing in the kitchen empowered them to better organize their schedules and meet deadlines, fostering a sense of control and accomplishment.
Sample comments:
“I think the most valuable thing that I learned is timing. How to make sure that everything that I am making is ready at the same time has always been a struggle for me, but now I feel like I have a better grasp on getting everything out together.”
“Time management skills that I learned from this class are something I will be able to use in any career no matter what it is.”
“Before this course, I struggled to balance my academic workload with cooking meals at home. However, learning effective time management techniques in the kitchen has been a game-changer for me. Now, I can efficiently plan and execute meals, freeing up more time for studying and leisure activities.”
“One of the most valuable skills I've gained from this course is time management. Learning to prioritize tasks and streamline my cooking process has not only made me more efficient in the kitchen but has also translated into better time management skills in all aspects of my life.”
Theme 2: Teamwork and collaboration
Twelve participants emphasized the value of teamwork and collaboration during cooking labs. Working together with classmates provided opportunities to practice effective communication, problem-solving, and interpersonal skills. Delegating tasks, coordinating cooking activities, and supporting each other in achieving common goals enriched the learning experience. Beyond the kitchen, the collaborative environment fostered during the course laid the groundwork for strong relationships and effective teamwork in various personal and professional contexts.
Sample comments:
“Working alongside classmates in the kitchen taught me the importance of communication and collaboration. We learned to delegate tasks, share responsibilities, and support each other, which are skills applicable beyond the kitchen environment.”
“These experiences will help me in the future when I have to work with different people on a project, and I will use what I learned from working with my team at the class to effectively communicate and work with my teammates so that our project is completed appropriately and promptly.”
"Participating in group cooking labs has taught me the importance of teamwork and collaboration. Working alongside my peers, we learned to communicate effectively, delegate tasks, and support each other to achieve our culinary goals. These experiences have not only enhanced my cooking skills but have also prepared me for collaborative work environments in the future.”
“Collaborating with classmates in the kitchen has been an enriching experience. Through teamwork and cooperation, we were able to overcome challenges and create delicious meals together. These collaborative efforts have strengthened my interpersonal skills and taught me the value of working together towards a common goal.”
Theme 3: Enhanced self-esteem and achievement
Through participation in the course, 9 participants reported a significant boost in their self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment. As they learned culinary techniques and preparing nutritious meals, students experienced personal growth and empowerment. Each successful cooking lab served as a validation of their skills and capabilities, fostering a sense of pride and confidence that extended beyond the kitchen.
Sample comments:
“Learning how to cook food has been incredibly empowering for me. This course has taught me that I'm capable of so much more than I thought, and that realization has spilled over into other areas of my life. I feel more confident and capable in all aspects of my life, not just cooking.”
“Before this course, I lacked confidence in my cooking abilities and often felt intimidated in the kitchen. However, as I learned new skills and successfully prepared meals, my self-esteem soared. The course helped me to step out of my comfort zone in other areas of my life, leading to personal growth and a stronger sense of self-worth.”
“Taking this course has been a confidence booster for me. As I've honed my cooking skills and experimented with new recipes, I've gained a sense of accomplishment and pride in my abilities. Cooking has become a source of joy and self-expression, and I feel more confident tackling culinary challenges both inside and outside the kitchen.”
“Discovering my passion for cooking through this course has been incredibly empowering. With each successful dish I prepare, I feel a sense of achievement and fulfillment. This course is giving me the courage to pursue my goals and dreams with renewed vigor.”
Theme 4: Financial literacy
Three participants highlighted the importance of financial literacy skills gained through the course. By learning to plan and budget for meals, participants gained a deeper understanding of the economic aspects of food choices. They also learned to minimize food waste through proper meal planning and storage. This newfound financial literacy not only empowered participants to make more informed decisions about their food purchases but also contributed to their overall financial well-being.
Sample comments:
“Taking this course has completely changed my perspective on cooking. Not only have I discovered the joy of preparing meals from scratch, but I've also realized the significant cost savings compared to eating out. Learning to cook has not only improved my health but also my financial situation.”
“One of the most valuable lessons I've learned from this course is the financial value of cooking. I used to eat out frequently, unaware of how much money I was spending. Now, I understand the importance of meal planning and how it can positively impact my finances. Cooking at home has become a way for me to save money and make more conscious spending choices.”
“Through this course, I've come to appreciate the impact of proper meal planning and storage on minimizing food waste. Before, I often found myself throwing away unused ingredients or leftovers. Now, I've learned strategies to organize my meals, utilize ingredients efficiently, and store food properly, resulting in less waste and more savings. It has helped me stretch my grocery budget further.”
DISCUSSION
The present study investigated the effectiveness of a nutrition course with cooking labs in improving cooking, eating behaviors, and psychosocial life skills among college students. Our findings indicate that the nutrition and culinary course positively impacted attitudes and behaviors related to cooking. This aligns with previous research suggesting that educational interventions can enhance cooking attitude and skills [8911]. These results support previous studies suggesting that cooking efficacy many contribute to promoting a healthy diet and maintaining health and well-being. Those studies have revealed that individuals who cook regularly may exercise greater autonomy over the amount and variety of foods they consume, which is an essential part of maintaining a healthy diet [825]. Studies showed that cooking meals for oneself was significantly associated with higher adherence to recommended dietary guidelines among young adults [9131426]. Notably, our intervention, which spanned a 15-week semester, demonstrated significant improvements not only in self-efficacy but also in actual cooking behavior compared to shorter interventions conducted over 6 weeks [14]. This suggests that longer courses may facilitate not only skill building but also reinforcement and, thus, lead to behavior change.
While our intervention resulted in increased consumption of fruits and vegetables, we did not observe significant changes in whole grains intake. This could be attributed to the curriculum's lesser emphasis on whole grains compared to vegetables and fruits in the recipes prepared during cooking labs. Future programs may benefit from incorporating more whole grains-based recipes to promote balanced dietary habits. These findings echo those of previous research [13], highlighting the importance of curriculum design in influencing dietary behavior change. Additionally, despite the increased intake of fruits and vegetables post-intervention, our study revealed that only 17.8% and 26.0% of undergraduate college students reported consuming at least 3 to 4 servings of fruits and vegetables per day, with 2.7% and 1.4% reporting consumption of 5 or more servings per day. For reference, the 2020–2025 dietary guidelines for Americans recommend a combined 4 and a half servings of fruits and vegetables per day as part of a healthy dietary pattern, based on an energy intake of 2,000 kilocalories per day [27]. These findings highlight the ongoing challenge of promoting adequate fruits and vegetables consumption among college students, suggesting the need for continued efforts to improve dietary habits and adherence to dietary guidelines.
The qualitative analysis revealed additional life lessons beyond cooking, including teamwork, time management, enhanced self-esteem, and financial literacy. These findings are consistent with prior studies [152528] and support the SCT [12], which posits that observational learning and positive reinforcement contribute to behavior repetition. By fostering a collaborative environment during cooking labs, our intervention facilitated skill development and promoted positive psychosocial outcomes among participants. Furthermore, the newfound financial literacy gained through meal planning and budgeting further empowered participants to make informed food choices and manage resources effectively. This aligns with previous research emphasizing the cost-effectiveness of home cooking [25] and underscores the practical implications of nutrition culinary education in promoting healthier and more economical dietary habits and, thus, contributing to their overall financial well-being.
Many college students in the United States have stated that they choose meals based on their financial means rather than what they need or want to eat [29]. In Korea, Kim and Choi [30] found the association between cooking practices and healthy eating habits among young Korean adults. Self-efficacy was a significant predictor of healthy eating habits, whereas living along or in lower income households had a negative effect on healthy eating habits. This aspect was also the most frequently mentioned influencing factor by most college student interviews in Korea [31]. In the study, many students said they desired to eat healthy meals or balanced meals that provide fruit and vegetables regularly or eat 3 meals daily. These individuals knew what a healthy diet was, but they made different choices because they prioritized economic factors. Therefore, students have a healthy diet is necessary, considering economic factors, the most important influencing factor in the dietary decision. The finding that a nutrition course with cooking labs improves financial literacy, as mentioned by a few students, can provide meaningful insights. These responses may reflect an underrepresented yet significant concern within the broader population.
Moreover, our research emphasizes the practical implications of nutrition and culinary education in promoting not only healthier dietary habits but also essential life skills such as teamwork, time management, and financial literacy. By empowering students to make more informed decisions about food choices and resource management, our intervention extends beyond the kitchen to positively impact their overall well-being.
Since opportunities to learn practical cooking knowledge and skills both at home and in an educational setting have been lost over the past few decades, there is a reduction in cooking practices [3233]. Traditionally, cooking skills were passed down through generations within families, but this has declined as more women enter the workforce and ready-made foods become prevalent. Additionally, the devaluation of home economics in schools, as compared to subjects deemed essential for higher education [32], has further contributed to the erosion of basic cooking skills from childhood to adulthood. This lack or sporadic availability of educational opportunities both at home and in an educational setting may bring children into young adulthood without even basic cooking knowledge and skills. Therefore, school education needs to resuscitate and transform cooking classes to fit with changes in food-related lifestyles and environments for the current and future generation. Recently in Korea, Ko et al. [34] developed a campus-based 11-week intervention program to enhance food literacy among university students highlighting cooking sessions. Given that university students primarily conduct their daily lives on campus, adding the nutrition program into their routines is paramount in facilitating knowledge enhancement and attitude changes.
The results of this study suggest that the nutrition with cooking lab intervention not only improved cooking skills and eating behaviors but also had a positive impact on essential life skills such as teamwork, time management, and financial literacy. Given these benefits, it is recommended that this type of education be expanded beyond nutrition or culinary majors and offered as part of general education for all university students, enabling broader access to these fundamental life skills.
Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the sample was comprised of students from one university, potentially limiting the generalizability of these findings to all college students in the United States. The results in other regions of the country or other countries would explore any significant differences in the responses. Another limitation of this study is the use of a one-group pre- and post-test design without a control group, which increases the possibility of bias when attributing the observed effects to the educational intervention. Additionally, the study is susceptible to testing bias, as participants may have improved their performance simply due to repeated exposure to the same tests. To address these limitations, future research should incorporate a control group and consider strategies to minimize bias, such as randomization and blinding, to strengthen the validity of the findings regarding the effectiveness of nutrition and culinary education interventions.
In conclusion, our findings contribute to the existing literature by demonstrating that a comprehensive 15-week nutrition course with cooking labs not only enhances cooking attitude, confidence, and skills but also translates into actual changes in cooking behavior and dietary habits. Compared to shorter interventions observed in prior research [1625], our study’s longer duration allowed for both skill building and reinforcement, resulting in more sustainable behavior change. Moreover, our research emphasizes the practical implications of nutrition and culinary education in promoting not only healthier dietary habits but also essential life skills such as teamwork, time management, and financial literacy. By empowering students to make more informed decisions about food choices and resource management, our intervention extends beyond the kitchen to positively impact their overall well-being.
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