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Although noodles occupy an important place in the dietary lives of Americans, up until the present time research and in-depth data on the noodle consumption patterns of the US population have been very limited. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the food consumption and diet patterns of noodle consumers and non-consumers according to age, gender, income, and ethnicity. The 2001-2002 NHANES databases were used. The NHANES 2001-2002 data showed that noodle consumers reporting noodle consumption in their 24-h recall were 2,035 individuals (23.3% of total subjects). According to the results, the mean noodle consumption was 304.1 g/day/person, with 334.3 g for males and 268.0 g for females. By age, the intake of those in the age range of 9-18 years old ranked highest at 353.0 g, followed by the order of 19-50 year-olds with 333.5 g, 51-70 year-olds with by 280.4 g, older than 71years old with 252.3 g, and 1-8 year-olds with 221.5 g. By gender, males consumed more noodles than females. Also, according to income, the intake amount for the middle-income level (PIR 1~1.85) of consumers was highest at 312.5 g. Noodle intake also showed different patterns by ethnicity in which the "other" ethnic group consumed the most noodles with 366.1 g, followed by, in order, Hispanics with 318.7 g, Whites with 298.6 g, and Blacks with 289.5 g. After comparing food consumption by dividing the subjects into noodle consumers and non-consumers, the former was more likely to consume milk, fish, citrus fruits, tomatoes, and alcoholic beverages while the latter preferred meat, poultry, bread, and non-alcohol beverages.
Although they originated in Asia, noodles have become one of the most popular foods in the United States. Growth in the domestic food use of wheat has accelerated during the last two decades and wheat flour is used to produce noodles. The U.S. market for pasta and noodles increased at a compound annual growth rate of 6.7% between 2003 and 2008, and the dried pasta/noodles category led the pasta and noodles market, accounting for 76.9% [
Japanese style (e.g., udon) and Chinese-type noodles (e.g., ramen) as well as spaghetti are frequently consumed in restaurants and at home. However, the effects of noodle consumption on the diet patterns and eating habits of Americans have not been studied in detail.
Examining patterns of food group consumption has emerged as an important focal point for understanding the role of diet in disease risk [
However, in the case of noodles, little is known about noodle consumption patterns and the contribution that noodle provide in the American diet. Dietary patterns and food groups reflect different ethnic eating traditions [
Bui and Small [
Noodle studies have focused on manufacturing methods or composition analysis, or have been confined to food and cultural studies, but there is little data on the effects of noodle consumption on diet and health status [
This article provides information on current noodle consumption patterns in the United States and the dietary intake of noodles by consumers in general. It also offers analyses of noodle consumers by income, race, and ethnicity. The primary objective of the research was to gain a better understanding of noodle consumption in the United States and whether consuming noodles has a beneficial effect on total diet, in which they may play a role in healthful eating. The contribution of economic, social, and demographic factors related to noodle consumption were examined. The differences in noodle consumption by income level and ethnic background provide insights into the factors that affect food selection among these groups. The results provide useful information for designing food programs and planning national food supply strategies.
We used data collected in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2001-2002 [
The noodle consumers were identified and classified based on the intake of noodles consumed in food items. Information from the NHANES code book was used to identify foods that contained noodles. Foods containing noodles, spaghetti, macaroni, and pasta were included. Noodles from other sources (chicken noodle soup, etc.) were not counted in the selection. The classification of "noodle consumer" was assigned to individuals who reported eating noodles during one day, and other individuals were classified as non-consumers.
The food groups were classified according to USDA food group classifications and were regrouped as 38 food groups, including noodles (noodles, macaroni, pasta, spaghetti) (
We examined the associations between noodle consumption variables and socioeconomic characteristics such as gender, age, income, and ethnicity. All statistical analyses were adjusted for the sample weights and the complex sample design of NHANES by using SAS (release 9.13, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC) and SUDAAN (release 10.1, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC) [
The analysis and results based on the NHANES 2001-2002 data include basic information on noodle consumption as well as comparisons across other food groups showing the comparative importance of noodles in the diets of Americans.
To determine the positioning of noodles in the dietary patterns of Americans, we investigated the vast quantity of consumed food groups using NHANES data. The NHANES 2001-2002 data showed that noodle consumers (NC, 23.3%), those who had eaten noodles on one day of observed data, included 2,035 persons with 975 (47.9%) males and 1,060 females (52.1%). All others were classified as non-consumers (noodle non-consumers: NNC, 76.7%).
First, we researched the ranking of noodles for noodle consumers among the vast quantity intake foodstuffs. When the average amounts of consumption for the entire age ranges were considered, the ranking of noodles among the vast quantity intake foodstuffs was 5th, which included noodles, macaroni, pasta, and spaghetti. The consumption amount of non-alcoholic beverages was highest, followed by milk, alcoholic beverages, and fruit juices, in order (
The results of NHANES 2001-2002 showed a total number of 2,035 individuals consumed noodles during the survey period. Among them there were 975 males and 1,060 females, indicating that the noodle consumption frequency of females was higher than that of males. The average amount of noodles consumed was 304.1 g a day. The average amount of noodles consumed by the males was 344.3 g, which is significantly higher than that of the females at 268.0 g (
Across age groups, the highest noodle consumption was in 9-18 year-olds, with 353.0 g, followed by 19-50 year-olds with 333.5 g, 51-70 year-olds with 280.4 g, 71 years old and above with 252.3 g, and 1-8 year-olds with 221.5 g. In the case of males, the highest ratio of noodle consumers was for those between 19-50 years old. For both males and females, 9-18 year-olds consumed the highest amounts of noodles. Except for the 1-8 year-old consumers, males had higher noodle consumption than females across all age levels, where those who were 9-18 years old (
According to gender, noodle intake ranked 5th among the vast quantity food items for both males and females, and no difference in ranking appeared. In terms of quantity, non-alcoholic beverages were the most highly consumed food group for both men and woman. This was followed in the order of alcoholic beverages, milk, and fruit juice for the men, and milk, fruit juice, and fruit for the women.
After comparing the intakes of two age groups of consumers, those under 18 years old and 19 years old and above, significant relationships between age and noodle consumption (
In order to examine the association between noodle consumption and the social/economic status, the PIR (Poverty Income Ratio) was used. The PIR refers to the poverty level ratio (or poverty threshold), which determines income or poverty. If PIR is 1.0, for instance, it implies living at the poverty level, and if PIR is 0.5, it indicates a living status at half under the poverty level. According to the U.S Census Bureau, a PIR of 0.5 means "severely poor", and a PIR 1.25 means "near poor". In accordance with the U.S PIR standards, we distinguished the groups into 4 categories: "below 1.0", "1.0-1.84", "1.85-3.5", and "above 3.5" to explore the rankings of food consumption by income level. For PIRs below 3.5, noodle intake ranked 5th without notable differences among the three PIR categories. On the other hand, in the higher income group with a PIR above 3.5, noodle intake ranked 8th and showed differences from other the three PIR groups. In the group with PIRs above 3.5, the 5th and 6th ranked food groups were fruits and vegetables, respectively, and the 8th was breads, rolls, pancakes, and waffles (
The results of noodle intake by income showed that the ratio of noodle consumers was highest in the group with PIRs below 1.0, but it was concluded that noodle consumption was not significantly related to income. The relationships between noodle intake amounts and income levels did not show consistent outcomes (
Differences in food consumption patterns are not only influenced by culture but also by ethnicity. In order to examine noodle consumption patterns by ethnicity, we categorized the groups into Hispanic, non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, and others. After analyzing the food groups most consumed according to ethnicity, noodles ranked at remarkably different positions (
The ratios of noodle consumers and intake amounts by ethnicity are shown in
After dividing the subjects by noodle consumers and non-consumers, we compared food consumption amounts for the 37 food groups for studying food group consumption pattern.
Based on re-categorized foods, we analyzed additional food items that noodles were consumed with, which showed a variety of ranges (
In all age groups, the noodle consumers showed significantly higher intakes of beef (
This study provides information on noodle consumption in the United States and shows similarities and differences in the dietary sources of those who consume noodles compared to those who do not. The research focused on examining noodle consumers, understanding any differences in noodle consumption according to demographic factors, and analyzing how the food intake of noodle consumers differed from that of non-noodle consumers.
Even though noodles and ramen are not consumed frequently by all consumers in the United States, noodles are a main dietary source, especially for some ethnic groups. Moreover, the noodle consumers differed from the non-noodle consumers in their food intake. When the two groups were compared, the noodle consumers showed food choices that contained more tomatoes and less beef, poultry, sandwiches, legumes, breads, ready-to-eat cereals, grain mixtures, white potatoes, and vegetable mixtures. While a causal relationship was not found, noodle consumption was associated with the choice of other food groups that were consumed with noodles.
Age exerted a significant influence on noodle consumption, indicating that noodle intake may differ by demographic factors. Noodle intake also differed by ethnicity, showing cultural background to be an important factor for differences in food group intake and can affect the nutritional status of different ethnic groups. There were significant differences between ethnic groups in their rankings of the vast quantity intake foodstuffs as compared to other demographic factors such as gender, age, and PIR. Differences in noodle consumption among age and racial groups explain changes in both food preferences among the age groups and the different populations. In the case of the "other" ethnic group, including Asians, noodles and ready-to-eat-cereals held especially high rankings in the vast quantity intake foodstuffs. These results are due to Asian culture where noodles are a staple food. There are, however, a number of problems that remain to be explored. In this study, the source of data lacked accurate demographic information. NHANES data make no distinction between "other" ethnic groups. Therefore, it is difficult to research the actual conditions of noodle intake in various racial and ethnic groups belonging to the "other" category. Another limitation of our analysis is there was no consideration for eating location (at home or away from home).
The current study indicated that individuals consuming more noodles showed higher consumption of tomatoes. It is probable that the major sources of noodles are pasta and spaghetti. On the other hand, the noodle consumers had a tendency of consuming less amounts of vegetables, beans and domestic fowl as compared to those of non-noodle consumers. The inclusion of noodles in planning menus for school lunch programs or food assistance programs may further encourage the consumption of a varied diet that contains more vegetables, legumes, poultry, and beef. In addition, noodle consumers may benefit from new recipes in which noodles, particularly nutrient fortified noodles, are used in combination with vegetables and legumes. Finally, further research is necessary to examine shifts in noodle consumption by passage of time and demographic factors.
This research was supported by grants from Nongshim Co. LTD in 2009.
Food groupings used in noodle consumption patterns
Ranking of vast quantity intake food items of US subjects by age, NHANES 2001-2002
Noodle intakes of US subjects by gender, 1-85 years, NHANES 2001-20021)
1)Noodle consumers were analyzed.
*Means are significantly different at α = 0.05 by t-test.
**Means are significantly different at α = 0.01 by t-test.
Ranking of vast quantity intake food items of US subjects by income, NHANES 2001-2002
Noodle intakes of US subjects by PIR, 1-85 years, NHANES 2001-20021)
1)Noodle consumers were analyzed.
2)Difference = intake (PIR < 1.0 group - 1.0 ≤ PIR < 1.85 group)
3)Difference = intake (PIR < 1.0 group - 1.85 ≤ PIR < 3.5 group)
4)Difference = intake (PIR < 1.0 group - PIR ≥ 3.5 group)
Ranking of vast quantity intake food items of US subjects by ethnicity, NHANES 2001-2002
Noodle intakes of US subjects by ethnicity, 1-85 years, NHANES 2001-20021)
1)Noodle consumers were analyzed.
**Means are significantly different at α = 0.01 compared to Hispanic by Bonferroni multiple t-test.
The type of food groups consumed with noodles by US subjects, NHANES 2001-2002
Intakes of food groups for noodle consumers vs non-consumers, US subjects 1-85 years, NHANES 2001-2002
1)Difference = intake (Noodle Consumer - Noodle Non-Consumer)
*Means are significantly different at α = 0.05 by t-test.
**Means are significantly different at α = 0.01 by t-test.
Intakes of food groups for noodle consumers vs non-consumers, US subjects 1-18 years, NHANES 2001-2002
1)Difference = intake (Noodle Consumer - Noodle Non-Consumer)
*Means are significantly different at α = 0.05 by t-test.
**Means are significantly different at α = 0.01 by t-test.
Intakes of food groups for noodle consumers vs non-consumers, US subjects 19+ years, NHANES 2001-2002
1)Difference = intake (Noodle Consumer - Noodle Non-Consumer)
*Means are significantly different at α = 0.05 by t-test.
**Means are significantly different at α = 0.01 by t-test.