Journal List > J Nutr Health > v.48(6) > 1081421

Kim, Jun, and Joung: Estimated dietary flavonoids intake of Korean adolescent: Based on the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007~2012∗

Abstract

Purpose:

The purpose of this study was to estimate dietary flavonoids intake of Korean adolescents.

Methods:

Using data from the 2007-2012 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a total of 3,957 subjects aged 12-18 were included in this study. We estimated individual daily intake of total flavonoid and six flavonoid classes including flavonols, flavones, flavanones, flavan-3-ols, anthocyanidins, and isoflavones by linking food consumption data with the flavonoids in the commonly consumed food database. The distribution of sociodemographic, health-related, and dietary factors according to flavonoids intake was examined.

Results:

Average dietary flavonoids intake of the study subjects was 195.6 mg/d in girls, and 189.4 mg/d in boys. The highest flavonoids intake group consumed significantly more fiber, vitamin C, legumes, fruits, and vegetables (p < 0.01) and less fat, grains, meats and dairy foods than other lower consumption groups (p < 0.001). Dietary flavonoid intake showed negative correlation with waist circumference and systolic blood pressure (p < 0.05).

Conclusion:

This study provided basic data for estimation of flavonoids intake of Korean adolescents. Further research will be required for analysis of the association of flavonoids intake and health-related factors such as cardiovascular risk factors.

REFERENCES

1.Lifshitz F., Tarim O., Smith MM. Nutrition in adolescence. Endocri-nol Metab Clin North Am. 1993. 22(3):673–683.
crossref
2.Kim KW., Shin EM. A study on nutrition knowledge, nutritional attitudes, dietary behavior and dietary intake by weight control attempt among middle school female students. Korean J Community Nutr. 2002. 7(1):23–31.
3.Kwon WJ., Chang KJ., Kim SK. Comparison of nutrient intake, dietary behavior, perception of body image and iron nutritional status among female high school students of urban and rural areas in Kyunggi-do. Korean J Nutr. 2002. 35(1):90–101.
4.An GS., Shin DS. A comparison of the food and nutrient intake of adolescents between urban areas and islands in south Kyungnam. Korean J Community Nutr. 2001. 6(3):271–281.
5.Oh K., Jang MJ., Lee NY., Moon JS., Lee CG., Yoo MH., Kim YT. Prevalence and trends in obesity among Korean children and adolescents in 1997 and 2005. Korean J Pediatr. 2008. 51(9):950–955.
crossref
6.Baek SH. Effect of % body fat, physical fitness on impact on cardiovascular risk index in female middle-school students. Korean J Sports Sci. 2012. 21(2):1009–1017.
7.Chang JH., Kim DH., Kim HS., Choi IK., Cheong MY., Kim DK. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in obese children. Korean J Pediatr. 2004. 47(11):1149–1156.
8.Ministry of Health and Welfare (KR). The third national health promotion plan (2011-2020). Seoul: Ministry of Health and Welfare;2011.
9.Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2011: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-2). Cheongwon: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2012.
10.Doll R. An overview of the epidemiological evidence linking diet and cancer. Proc Nutr Soc. 1990. 49(2):119–131.
crossref
11.Hertog MG., van Poppel G., Verhoven D. Potentially anticarcinogenic secondary metabolites from fruit and vegetables. Tomas-Barberan FA, Robins RJ, editors. editors.Phytochemistry of Fruit and Vegetables. Oxford: Clarendon Press;1997. p. 313–330.
12.Hertog MG., Feskens EJ., Hollman PC., Katan MB., Kromhout D. Dietary antioxidant flavonoids and risk of coronary heart disease: the Zutphen elderly study. Lancet. 1993. 342(8878):1007–1011.
crossref
13.Hertog MG., Kromhout D., Aravanis C., Blackburn H., Buzina R., Fidanza F., Giampaoli S., Jansen A., Menotti A., Nedeljkovic S., Pekkarinen M., Simic BS., Toshima H., Feskens EJ., Hollman PC., Katan MB. Flavonoid intake and long-term risk of coronary heart disease and cancer in the seven countries study. Arch Intern Med. 1995. 155(4):381–386.
14.Hertog MG., Sweetnam PM., Fehily AM., Elwood PC., Kromhout D. Antioxidant flavonols and ischemic heart disease in a Welsh population of men: the Caerphilly study. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997. 65(5):1489–1494.
crossref
15.Chun OK., Kim DO., Smith N., Schroeder D., Han JT., Lee CY. Daily consumption of phenolics and total antioxidant capacity from fruit and vegetables in the American diet. J Sci Food Agric. 2005. 85(10):): 1715– 1724.
crossref
16.Chun OK., Chung SJ., Song WO. Estimated dietary flavonoid intake and major food sources of U.S. adults. J Nutr. 2007. 137(5):1244–1252.
17.Graf BA., Milbury PE., Blumberg JB. Flavonols, flavones, flavanones, and human health: epidemiological evidence. J Med Food. 2005. 8(3):281–290.
crossref
18.Kris-Etherton PM., Keen CL. Evidence that the antioxidant flavonoids in tea and cocoa are beneficial for cardiovascular health. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2002. 13(1):41–49.
crossref
19.O'Byrne DJ., Devaraj S., Grundy SM., Jialal I. Comparison of the antioxidant effects of Concord grape juice flavonoids alpha-tocopherol on markers of oxidative stress in healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002. 76(6):1367–1374.
20.Vinson JA., Su X., Zubik L., Bose P. Phenol antioxidant quantity and quality in foods: fruits. J Agric Food Chem. 2001. 49(11):5315–5321.
crossref
21.Rein D., Paglieroni TG., Wun T., Pearson DA., Schmitz HH., Gosselin R., Keen CL. Cocoa inhibits platelet activation and function. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000. 72(1):30–35.
crossref
22.Vita JA. Polyphenols and cardiovascular disease: effects on endothelial and platelet function. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005. 81(1 Suppl):292S–297S.
crossref
23.Yao LH., Jiang YM., Shi J., Tomas-Barberan FA., Datta N., Singanu-song R., Chen SS. Flavonoids in food and their health benefits. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 2004. 59(3):113–122.
crossref
24.Beatty S., Koh H., Phil M., Henson D., Boulton M. The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration. Surv Ophthalmol. 2000. 45(2):115–134.
crossref
25.Lee SA., Shu XO., Li H., Yang G., Cai H., Wen W., Ji BT., Gao J., Gao YT., Zheng W. Adolescent and adult soy food intake and breast cancer risk: results from the Shanghai Women's Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009. 89(6):1920–1926.
crossref
26.Dominguez C., Ruiz E., Gussinye M., Carrascosa A. Oxidative stress at onset and in early stages of type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents. Diabetes Care. 1998. 21(10):1736–1742.
27.Jun S., Shin S., Joung H. Estimation of dietary flavonoid intake and major food sources of Korean adults. Br J Nutr. Forthcoming. 2015.
28.Knekt P., Jarvinen R., Reunanen A., Maatela J. Flavonoid intake and coronary mortality in Finland: a cohort study. BMJ. 1996. 312(7029):478–481.
crossref
29.Mink PJ., Scrafford CG., Barraj LM., Harnack L., Hong CP., Nettleton JA., Jacobs DR Jr. Flavonoid intake and cardiovascular disease mortality: a prospective study in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007. 85(3):895–909.
crossref
30.McCullough ML., Peterson JJ., Patel R., Jacques PF., Shah R., Dwyer JT. Flavonoid intake and cardiovascular disease mortality in a prospective cohort of US adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012. 95(2):454–464.
crossref
31.Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2007: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES IV-1) [Internet]. Cheongwon: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2008. [cited 2014 Sep 1]. Available from:. https://knhanes.cdc.go.kr/knhanes/index.do.
32.Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2008: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES IV-2) [Internet]. Cheongwon: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2009. [cited 2014 Sep 1]. Available from:. https://knhanes.cdc.go.kr/knhanes/index.do.
33.Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2009: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES IV-3) [Internet]. Cheongwon: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2010. [cited 2014 Sep 1]. Available from:. https://knhanes.cdc.go.kr/knhanes/index.do.
34.Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2010: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-1) [Internet]. Cheongwon: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2011. [cited 2014 Sep 1]. Available from:. https://knhanes.cdc.go.kr/knhanes/index.do.
35.Ministry of Health and Welfare, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Korea Health Statistics 2012: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES V-3) [Internet]. Cheongwon: Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention;2013. [cited 2014 Sep 1]. Available from:. https://knhanes.cdc.go.kr/knhanes/index.do.
36.Knaze V., Zamora-Ros R., Luján-Barroso L., Romieu I., Scalbert A., Slimani N., Riboli E., van Rossum CT., Bueno-de-Mesquita HB., Trichopoulou A., Dilis V., Tsiotas K., Skeie G., Engeset D., Quirós JR., Molina E., Huerta JM., Crowe F., Wirfäl E., Ericson U., Peeters PH., Kaaks R., Teucher B., Johansson G., Johansson I., Tumino R., Boeing H., Drogan D., Amiano P., Mattiello A., Khaw KT., Luben R., Krogh V., Ardanáz E., Sacerdote C., Salvini S., Overvad K., Tjønneland A., Olsen A., Boutron-Ruault MC., Fagherazzi G., Perquier F., González CA. Intake estimation of total and individual flavan-3-ols, proan-thocyanidins and theaflavins, their food sources and determinants in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study. Br J Nutr. 2012. 108(6):1095–1108.
crossref
37.Casagrande SS., Wang Y., Anderson C., Gary TL. Have Americans increased their fruit and vegetable intake? The trends between 1988 and 2002. Am J Prev Med. 2007. 32(4):257–263.
38.Kim JH., Lee MJ., Yang IS., Moon SJ. Analysis of factors affecting Korean eating behavior. Korean J Diet Cult. 1992. 7(1):1–8.
39.Galleano M., Calabro V., Prince PD., Litterio MC., Piotrkowski B., Vazquez-Prieto MA., Miatello RM., Oteiza PI., Fraga CG. Flavonoids and metabolic syndrome. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2012. 1259:87–94.
crossref
40.Steffen Y., Gruber C., Schewe T., Sies H. Mono-O-methylated flava-nols and other flavonoids as inhibitors of endothelial NADPH oxi-dase. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2008. 469(2):209–219.
crossref
41.Schroeter H., Heiss C., Balzer J., Kleinbongard P., Keen CL., Hollenberg NK., Sies H., Kwik-Uribe C., Schmitz HH., Kelm M. (-)-Epicat-echin mediates beneficial effects of flavanol-rich cocoa on vascular function in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006. 103(4):1024–1029.
crossref
42.Cassidy A., O'Reilly ÉJ., Kay C., Sampson L., Franz M., Forman JP., Curhan G., Rimm EB. Habitual intake of flavonoid subclasses and incident hypertension in adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011. 93(2):338–347.
crossref
43.Yang YJ., Kim YJ., Yang YK., Kim JY., Kwon O. Dietary flavan-3-ols intake and metabolic syndrome risk in Korean adults. Nutr Res Pract. 2012. 6(1):68–77.
crossref
44.Holt EM., Steffen LM., Moran A., Basu S., Steinberger J., Ross JA., Hong CP., Sinaiko AR. Fruit and vegetable consumption and its relation to markers of inflammation and oxidative stress in adolescents. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009. 109(3):414–421.
crossref
45.Kim SH., Cho SW., Hwang SS., Ahn M., Lee D., Kang SW., Park YK. Increased whole grain, fruits and vegetable intake reduced oxidative stress in high school students. Korean J Nutr. 2012. 45(5):452.
crossref
46.Ness AR., Maynard M., Frankel S., Smith GD., Frobisher C., Leary SD., Emmett PM., Gunnell D. Diet in childhood and adult cardiovascular and all cause mortality: the Boyd Orr cohort. Heart. 2005. 91(7):894–898.
crossref
47.The Korean Nutrition Society. Dietary reference intakes for Koreans. 1st revision. Seoul: The Korean Nutrition Society;2010.
48.Kim JH., Kim YS., Kim Y., Kang MS. Fruit and vegetable consumption and factors affecting fruit and vegetable consumption of school children and adolescents: findings from focus-group interviews with school nutrition teachers and nutritionists. Korean J Community Living Sci. 2013. 24(4):567–581.

Table 1.
General characteristics and total flavonoid intakes by sociodemographic and dietary lifestyle factors of the study population
Variables1) Male Female
n % Mean SE p value n % Mean SE p value
All 2,097 - 195.64 9.10   1,860 - 189.43 9.37  
Age
  12 ~ 14 y 1,106 52.74 176.11 11.23 NS2) 952 51.18 206.34 11.85 NS
  15 ~ 18 y 991 47.26 197.27 11.17   908 48.82 180.00 14.62  
Household Income
  Low 249 12.11 190.16 32.36 NS 245 13.37 155.26 14.86 NS
  Middle-Low 461 22.42 178.23 14.09   461 25.16 188.78 18.41  
  Middle-High 629 30.59 201.37 15.45   567 30.95 194.92 17.74  
  High 717 34.87 207.57 14.35   559 30.51 198.87 18.06  
Breakfast consumption3)
  2/2 days 1,431 68.34 200.96 9.88 NS 1,178 63.33 193.56 11.09 NS
  1/2 days 305 14.57 189.99 30.53   326 17.53 183.94 24.60  
  0/2 days 358 17.10 184.29 17.41   356 19.14 181.55 17.72  
Eating out
  <= 3 times a month 12 0.57 101.06 27.99 < 0.05 6 0.32 226.68 . NS
  1 ~ 6 times a week 1,331 63.59 193.16 11.76   1,227 65.97 187.74 10.95  
  >= 1 time a day 750 35.83 202.55 14.07   627 33.71 191.98 17.34  
Food security4)
  Food secure 1,983 94.79 197.55 9.38 NS 1,760 94.83 192.66 9.67 NS
  Food insecure 109 5.21 173.39 21.50   96 5.17 134.38 27.69  

1) Number of missing values was 69, 3, 4, and 9 for household income, breakfast consumption, eating out, and food security respectively.

2) Non significant

3) 2/2 days : Of 2 days before KNHANES, having breakfast for 2 days, 1/2 days : Of 2 days before KNHANES, having breakfast for 1 day, 0/2 days : Of 2 days before KNHANES, having no breakfast

4) Food secure : ‘All family membe had enough and a variety of foods during last year’ or ‘All family member had enough food (lacked variety) during last year’, Food inse cure: ‘The family could’t afford to have enough food (often/sometimes)’

Table 2.
The distribution of flavonoids intakes of the study population by sex and age group
Age Flavonoids intake (mg/d)
Male Female
  Mean SE Min 25th 50th 75th Max Mean SE Min 25th 50th 75th Max
Flavonols
  12 ~ 141) 45.95 1.61 0.00 12.47 32.92 61.29 424.09 41.15 1.48 0.00 13.22 31.15 57.44 343.94
  15 ~ 181) 56.65 2.62 0.00 14.01 37.47 76.39 860.28 43.96 3.37 0.00 11.71 27.78 56.67 1,847.67
Flavones
  12 ~ 14 0.58 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.44 12.12 0.53 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.45 12.34
  15 ~ 18 0.79 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.72 73.13 0.99 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.64 436.73
Flavanones
  12 ~ 14 38.05 8.55 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 2,507.13 54.47 8.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 2,720.71
  15-18 33.25 5.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 2,720.70 41.66 7.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 4,700.26
Flavan-3-ols
  12 ~ 14 27.10 3.34 0.00 0.00 0.23 1.77 1,765.73 38.90 4.69 0.00 0.01 0.27 5.06 1,731.08
  15-18 30.30 4.01 0.00 0.00 0.26 3.53 1,238.51 36.50 8.97 0.00 0.00 0.33 5.58 5,580.55
Anthocyanidins
  12 ~ 14 19.50 2.88 0.00 0.00 3.01 11.26 2,031.94 24.43 3.40 0.00 0.42 3.93 12.83 904.49
  15 ~ 18 23.58 3.72 0.00 0.00 2.75 10.88 2,031.93 22.16 2.76 0.00 0.00 3.06 11.53 1,707.93
soflavones
  12 ~ 14 44.92 2.67 0.00 0.43 12.32 58.76 685.04 46.87 3.78 0.00 0.40 8.95 52.05 1,043.07
  15 ~ 18 52.71 4.23 0.00 0.41 8.81 64.81 1,368.09 34.74 2.17 0.00 0.24 6.50 43.21 831.93
Total Flavonoids
  12 ~ 14 176.11 11.23 0.00 41.74 96.38 202.50 3,139.87 206.34 11.85 0.00 44.31 98.37 223.88 2,921.32
  15 ~ 18 197.27 11.17 0.00 44.41 108.02 220.93 3,213.23 180.00 14.62 0.00 36.96 85.08 199.17 7,512.11

1) Number of subjects was 1106 for male aged 12-14, 991 for male aged 15-18, 952 for female aged 12~14, and 908 for female aged

Table 3.
Nutrients and food group intake according to the quartile of total flavonoids density
Dietary intakes2) Quartile of total flavonoids density (mg/1,000 kcal)1)
Q1 (n = 989) Q2 (n = 989) Q3 (n = 990) Q4 (n = 989)
Food group (g/d)
  Grains 357.22 ± 6.41 355.44 ± 6.68 345.37 ± 6.73 302.59 ± 5.44∗∗∗
  Legumes 25.69 ± 4.15 35.93 ± 3.15 54.29 ± 3.77 67.25 ± 3.94∗∗∗
  Vegetables 157.49 ± 5.02 218.29 ± 6.45 265.80 ± 7.07 229.90 ± 5.59∗∗∗
  Fruits 135.09 ± 16.25 176.64 ± 13.02 182.95 ± 11.20 398.79 ± 14.73∗∗∗
  Meats 150.41 ± 7.22 161.22 ± 7.85 163.51 ± 8.60 134.23 ± 6.39∗∗
  Miik and Dairy products 308.26 ± 13.55 273.53 ± 10.41 271.47 ± 9.72 258.48 ± 9.41∗∗∗
Nutrients
  Total energy (kcal/d) 2,102.05 ± 34.87 2,205.27 ± 35.22 2,168.70 ± 35.78 2,008.72 ± 29.78∗∗∗
  Carbohydrate (g/d) 319.29 ± 5.02 337.48 ± 5.08 330.84 ± 4.92 326.08 ± 5.01
  Carbohydrate (% of total energy) 62.60 ± 0.45 62.63 ± 0.37 62.30 ± 0.37 64.93 ± 0.35∗∗∗
  Protein (g/d) 71.27 ± 1.43 79.21 ± 1.85 81.53 ± 1.71 72.09 ± 1.32
  Protein (% of total energy) 13.65 ± 0.15 14.32 ± 0.16 14.94 ± 0.13 14.22 ± 0.15
  Fat (g/d) 57.74 ± 1.70 57.93 ± 1.36 57.53 ± 1.57 48.31 ± 1.05∗∗∗
  Fat (% of total energy) 23.75 ± 0.40 23.05 ± 0.31 22.76 ± 0.32 20.86 ± 0.28∗∗∗
  Dietary fiber (g/d) 4.75 ± 0.12 5.58 ± 0.13 5.91 ± 0.14 6.23 ± 0.14∗∗∗
  Calcium (mg/d) 455.40 ± 12.83 479.76 ± 12.26 530.57 ± 12.96 520.59 ± 11.82∗∗∗
  Phosphorus (mg/d) 1,105.23 ± 19.18 1,195.75 ± 20.29 1,262.52 ± 22.19 1,171.99 ± 19.71
  Iron (mg/d) 11.30 ± 0.41 12.66 ± 0.45 13.75 ± 0.38 13.42 ± 0.33∗∗∗
  Sodium (mg/d) 4,021.73 ± 86.22 4,340.68 ± 101.43 4,681.57 ± 108.67 4,068.21 ± 81.47
  Vitamin C (mg/d) 53.00 ± 2.06 72.28 ± 2.23 89.14 ± 2.54 154.11 ± 5.37∗∗∗

1) Energy adjusted flavonoid intake was obtained by dividing flavonoid intake by 1,000 kcal.

2) All values are Mean ± SE. ∗p for trend < 0.05, ∗∗p for trend < 0.01, ∗∗∗p for trend < 0.001, p for trend value was from GLM analysis.

Table 4.
The regression estimates of several food group intakes on the flavonoid intakes
Variables (100 g/d) Flavonoid intake (mg/1,000 kcal)1)
Slope (β coeff.) P-value Model R2 2)3)
Total flavonoid density
  Grains -12.815 0.0003 0.3242
  Legumes 36.099 0.0001
  Vegetables 3.225 0.2935
  Fruits 26.830 < .0001
  Meats -7.187 0.0024
  Miik and Dairy products -6.347 0.0002
Flavonol density
  Grains -2.761 < .0001 0.1728
  Legumes 5.768 0.0847
  Vegetables 5.969 < .0001
  Fruits 0.904 0.0684
  Meats -0.226 0.6045
  Miik and Dairy products -1.498 < .0001
Anthocyanidin density
  Grains -3.504 0.0619 0.1727
  Legumes -2.078 0.4608
  Vegetables 0.613 0.6507
  Fruits 7.970 0.0290
  Meats -1.766 0.1169
  Miik and Dairy products -0.499 0.4859
Isoflavone density
  Grains -3.805 0.0001 0.2409
  Legumes 27.953 < .0001
  Vegetables 1.141 0.2459
  Fruits 2.427 0.0418
  Meats -2.416 0.0087
  Miik and Dairy products -0.502 0.4860

1) Energy adjusted flavonoid intake was obtained by dividing flavonoid intake by 1,000 kcal.

2) adjusted for sex, age

3) The results of flavone, flavanone, and flavan-3-ol density were not presented because R< 0.15.

Table 5.
Top five food sources for the flavonoid intake among Korean adolescent
Compound Rank Food item Everage intake (mg/day/person) Contribution rate (%) Cumulative contribution rate (%)
Flavonols 1 Onion 32.32 68.70 68.70
2 Radish 3.09 6.58 75.27
3 Radish leaves 2.80 5.94 81.22
4 Apple 2.09 4.45 85.67
5 Tangerine 0.98 2.08 87.75
Flavones 1 Sweetpepper 0.32 41.30 41.30
2 Parsley, dried 0.11 14.28 55.58
3 Watermelon 0.07 8.79 64.37
4 Green pepper 0.06 7.93 72.30
5 Kumquat 0.05 5.90 78.20
Flavanones 1 Tangerine 34.59 77.66 77.66
2 Tangerinejuice 5.30 11.91 89.57
3 Orange 1.52 3.41 92.98
4 Fruits juice 1.00 2.25 95.23
5 Orange juice 0.99 2.22 97.45
Flavan-3-ols 1 Apple 28.86 84.08 84.08
2 Green tea 1.65 4.80 88.88
3 Milk 0.75 2.19 91.06
4 Green tea, Dried powder 0.69 2.02 93.08
5 Strawberry 0.55 1.61 94.69
Anthocyanins 1 Grape 7.25 32.47 32.47
2 Strawberry 3.69 16.55 49.02
3 Persimmon 3.17 14.21 63.23
4 Radish 2.94 13.17 76.40
5 Well polished rice 0.90 4.05 80.44
Isoflavones 1 Soybean curd 28.16 61.35 61.35
2 Tangerine 9.55 20.80 82.15
3 Soybean sprout 4.48 9.77 91.91
4 Doenjang, Soybean paste 1.16 2.53 94.44
5 Soybean curd, Unpressed 0.81 1.76 96.21
Total flavonoids 1 Tangerine 45.49 23.34 23.34
2 Onion 32.32 16.58 39.93
3 Apple 31.13 15.97 55.90
4 Soybean curd 28.16 14.45 70.35
5 Grape 7.91 4.06 74.41
Table 6.
Sociodemographic, health-related and dietary lifestyle characteristics according to the quartile of total flavonoids density
Variables2) Total flavonoids density (mg/1000kcal)1)
Q1 (n = 989) Q2 (n = 989) Q3 (n = 990) Q4 (n = 989)
Sociodemographic factor
  Age (yr) 15.08 ± 0.07 15.02 ± 0.07 14.95 ± 0.08 15.03 ± 0.08
  Female, % 40.96 46.98 43.34 51.06∗
  Household Income (KRW/month) 418.52 ± 21.20 454.47 ± 39.38 439.61 ± 36.59 416.94 ± 23.77
Health-realted factor
  BMI (kg/m2) 21.07 ± 0.16 20.83 ± 0.15 21.09 ± 0.16 20.79 ± 0.12
  Waist circumference (cm) 70.82 ± 0.42 70.45 ± 0.39 71.24 ± 0.42 69.87 ± 0.35∗
  Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 107.09 ± 0.41 108.02 ± 0.42 107.95 ± 0.46 106.59 ± 0.45∗
  Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 67.62 ± 0.35 68.54 ± 0.33 67.42 ± 0.42 67.80 ± 0.36
  Fasting blood glucose (mg/d) 88.71 ± 0.44 88.87 ± 0.33 88.60 ± 0.30 88.36 ± 0.29
  Triglyceride (mg/dL) 85.50 ± 2.14 86.19 ± 2.31 88.47 ± 2.38 84.18 ± 1.86
  Total cholesterol (mg/dL) 156.40 ± 1.24 154.78 ± 1.17 156.59 ± 1.22 156.11 ± 1.18
Ditary lifestyle factor
  Regular breakfast eater3), % 58.98 64.17 66.73 63.41
  Eating out >= 1 time a day, % 40.66 37.72 34.06 38.10
  Household with food secure4), % 94.42 93.41 93.90 96.15

1) Energy adjusted flavonoid intake was obtained by dividing flavonoid intake by 1,000 kcal.

2) All values are Mean ± SE unless otherwise noted.

3) Regular breakfast consumption : Of 2 days before KNHANES, having breakfast for 2 days

4) Household with food secure : ‘All family member had enough and a variety of foods during last year’ or ‘All family member had enough food (lacked variety) during last year’.

∗p value < 0.05, p value from GLM analysis for continuous values and from chi-square test for categorical values

TOOLS
Similar articles