Journal List > J Nutr Health > v.48(5) > 1081410

Lim, Choi, Hwang, Moon, and Kim: Development of dietary behavior items available in Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey∗

Abstract

Purpose:

Given that the indicators related to chronic diseases are important to evaluating goals of the national health policy, the aim of this study was to develop dietary behavior items available in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Methods:

The dietary behavior items were developed based on the literature reviews, need assessment of the field, expert focus-group interviews, and expert advisory meeting. Questions for each dietary behavior item were developed by reflecting on environmental, personal, and behavior factors of the ecological frame and then revised through expert focus-group interview and expert advisory meeting. The understanding and reliability of the developed questionnaire were assessed by cognitive interview and test-retest reliability.

Results:

The developed items were sodium and salt intake, added and simple sugar intake, enough time to consume a meal for all ages, caffeine drinks and fresh/healthy food intake for children and adolescents, and limited dietary intake, fresh/healthy food intake for seniors. In most questions except some questions on sodium and salt intake, subjects understood over 70% and consistency of responses based on the kappa values was acceptable.

Conclusion:

Developed dietary behavior items are expected to be useful for evidence-based nutrition policy, interventions and research targeting dietary patterns through investigating and monitoring dietary behavior patterns.

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Fig. 1.
The development procedure of dietary behavior questionnaire.
jnh-48-407f1.tif
Table 1.
General characteristics of participants in the cognitive interview
  Total Men Woman
  (n = 32) (n = 16) (n = 16)
Age (Mean ± SD) 43.0 ± 25.91) 42.9 ± 27.3 43.1 ± 25.3
Age group
  ≤65 21 (65.6)2) 10 (62.5) 11 (68.8)
  >65 11 (34.4) 6 (37.5) 5 (31.2)
Education
  No education 1 (3.1) 1 (6.2) 0 (0.0)
  Elementary school 9 (28.1) 5 (31.2) 4 (25.0)
  Middle school 7 (21.9) 3 (18.7) 4 (25.0)
  High school 5 (15.6) 1 (6.2) 4 (25.0)
  College/University or higher 10 (31.3) 6 (37.4) 4 (25.0)

1) Mean ± SD

2) (Standard deviation) 2) n (%)

Table 2.
Candidates of survey items that are not included in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey based on the literature review
Dimension Items from dietary guideline Items from international national survey Items from literatures
Balance     Unbalanced diet intake
Variety   Reason of supplement use  
    Special food intake  
    Reasons of food avoidance  
Moderation Perception of the control of portion size Perception of moderate amount of diet Perception of sodium intake
  Compliance with low-salt eating Dietary control by special reason Intake frequency of fried or roasted food
  Compliance with low fat diet Perception of salt or sodium intake Intake frequency of processed food intake
  Compliance with low energy dense and nutrient poor food intake Intake frequency of added-sugar beverage  
    De-caffeinated beverage consumption  
Others Perception of food hygiene Enough time to eat Eating speed
  Compliance with healthy eating Compliance with and perception of dietary guideline  
  Compliance with healthy lifestyle Subjective evaluation of dietary intake  
  Perception of table manners Perception of healthy lifestyle and nutrition knowledge  
    Food allergy and type of food allergy  
    Perception of national health promotion plan  
    Dietary behavior related to psychosocial factor  
Table 3.
Result of need assessment of dietary behavior items fo Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Ranking Score1)
1. Salt and sodium intake 114
2. Added sugar beverage intake 80
3. Caffeine beverage intake (included energy drink) 38
4. Perception and compliance of dietary guideline 38
5. Enough time to eat and eating speed 33
6. Avoidant food and reasons of food avoidance 32
7. Ways to get the health and dietary information 18
8. Perception of national health promotion plan 10

5 items for multiple-response were scored by ranking of priority for the survey item (1st = 5 points, 2nd = 4 points, 3rd = 3 points, 4th = 2 points, 5th = 1 point).

Table 4.
The number of questions for dietary behavior items developed by social cognitive theory
Subjects Items Three factors in Social Cognitive Theory
External environment Personal factor Behavior factor
All Total number of questions 41) 5 14
    Salt or sodium intake 1 3 4
    Added sugar or sweets intake 1 2 6
    Dietary behavior 2 0 4
Children Total number of questions 3 4 11
    Caffeine intake 0 1 4
    Snack and healthy food intake 3 3 7
Elders Total number of questions 7 4 7
    Limited food intake 4 0 1
    Snack and healthy food intake 3 4 6

1) All values are number of questions.

Table 5.
Reliability of dietary behavior questionnaires for all subjects
All All Kappa (95% CI) Children Kappa (95% CI) Adult Kappa (95% CI) Elders Kappa (95% CI)
Environments to eat unsalty food 0.38 (0.06~0.71) 0.62 (-0.04~1.00) 0.78 (0.39~1.00)∗∗ -0.22 (-0.73~0.29)
Preference for a salty taste 0.70 (0.50~0.90)∗∗ 0.72 (0.38~1.00)∗∗ 0.85 (0.67~1.00)∗∗ 0.44 (0.02~0.86)
Perception of low-salt eating 0.51 (0.14~0.88)∗∗ 0.80 (0.44~1.00)∗∗ 0.00 (0.00~0.00) 0.00 (0.00~0.00)
Efforts to eat low-salt food 0.59 (0.27~0.91)∗∗ 1.00 (1.00~1.00)∗∗ 0.41 (-0.18~1.00) -0.15 (-0.37~0.07)
Choice of low-salt food 0.77 (0.53~1.00)∗∗ 1.00 (1.00~1.00)∗∗ 0.78 (0.39~1.00)∗∗ 0.56 (0.06~1.00)
Level of salt intake 0.75 (0.57~0.93)∗∗ 0.31 (-0.32~0.94) 0.68 (0.37~0.99)∗∗ 1.00 (1.00~1.00)∗∗
Soy sauce use for fried food 0.75 (0.61~0.88)∗∗ 0.87 (0.69~1.00)∗∗ 0.76 (0.57~0.96)∗∗ 0.49 (0.23~0.75)∗∗
Soup intake during meal time 0.56 (0.33~0.79)∗∗ 0.43 (-0.06~0.91) 0.68 (0.34~1.00)∗∗ 0.52 (0.10~0.93)∗∗
Frequency of salty food intake 0.60 (0.37~0.83)∗∗ 0.62 (0.21~1.00)∗∗ 0.74 (0.42~1.00)∗∗ 0.41 (0.02~0.80)
Environments related to added-sugar beverages 0.64 (0.42~0.86)∗∗ 0.59 (0.23~0.95)∗∗ 0.83 (0.61~1.00)∗∗ 0.30 (0.05~0.55)
Preference for sweetness 0.68 (0.50~0.87)∗∗ 0.89 (0.68~1.00)∗∗ 0.76 (0.54~0.98)∗∗ 0.48 (0.16~0.81)∗∗
Frequency of drinking water instead of added sugar beverages 0.36 (0.14~0.58)∗∗ 0.37 (-0.08~0.82) 0.25 (-0.11~0.61) 0.14 (-0.20~0.48)
Frequency of soda intake 0.61 (0.39~0.83)∗∗ 0.53 (0.16~0.89)∗∗ 0.68 (0.51~0.85)∗∗ -0.05 (-0.15~0.04)
Frequency of coffee intake 0.78 (0.61~0.95)∗∗ 0.71 (0.51~0.91)∗∗ 0.85 (0.62~1.00)∗∗ 0.59 (0.22~0.95)∗∗
Frequency of fruit juice intake 0.67 (0.44~0.90)∗∗ 0.76 (0.43~1.00)∗∗ 0.57 (0.22~0.91)∗∗ 0.49 (0.17~0.80)
Frequency of sports drink intake 0.67 (0.42~0.92)∗∗ 0.77 (0.44~1.00)∗∗ 0.53 (0.24~0.82)∗∗ 0.52 (0.14~0.90)∗∗
Frequency of fruit flavored beverages 0.57 (0.34~0.81)∗∗ 0.76 (0.45~1.00)∗∗ 0.39 (-0.11~0.88) 0.42 (0.05~0.78)
Frequency of tea and traditional beverages 0.40 (0.15~0.66)∗∗ 0.61 (0.23~1.00)∗∗ 0.39 (0.00~0.78)∗∗ 0.22 (-0.06~0.50)
Enough time to eat breakfast 0.50 (0.29~0.70)∗∗ 0.47 (0.13~0.81) 0.53 (0.15~0.90) 0.33 (-0.02~0.69)
Frequency of eating fast 0.54 (0.24~0.84)∗∗ 0.67 (0.33~1.00)∗∗ 0.55 (0.12~0.98) 0.13 (-0.29~0.55)

∗p-value < 0.05

∗∗p-value < 0.01

Table 6.
Reliability of dietary behavior questionnaire for children and elders
Children Kappa (95% CI) Elders Kappa (95% CI)
Efforts to drink low caffeine beverage 0.51 (0.19~0.84) Environment related to teeth and oral problem 0.00 (0.00~0.00)
Frequency of drinking high caffeine beverage -0.07 (-0.17~0.03) Difficulty of cooking due to lack of place or facility equipment 1.00 (1.00~1.00)∗∗
Frequency of drinking tonic drinks 0.03 (-0.43~0.50) Difficulty of cooking due to physical disability 0.30 (-0.18~0.78)
Frequency of drinking chocolate beverage 0.44 (0.00~0.89) Difficulty of buying due to physical disability 1.00 (1.00~1.00)∗∗
Frequency of drinking black tea 0.53 (0.02~1.00) Frequency of cooking 0.34 (0.02~0.67)∗∗
Environment to eat fruits 0.29 (-0.17~0.75) Availability of fruit at home 0.65 (0.42~0.87)∗∗
Availability of fruit at home 0.63 (0.39~0.86)∗∗ Availability of milk at home 0.85 (0.69~1.00)∗∗
Availability of milk at home 0.08 (-0.25~0.41) Accessibility to grocery stores for buying vegetables and fruits 0.38 (-0.19~0.95)
Efforts to eat fruit 0.67 (0.40~0.95)∗∗ Efforts to eat fruit 0.59 (0.40~0.79)∗∗
Efforts to eat milk product 0.53 (0.21~0.86) Efforts to eat milk products 0.68 (0.42~0.93)∗∗
Efforts to eat vegetables 0.40 (0.16~0.65) Efforts to eat vegetables 0.43 (0.03~0.83)
Frequency of fruit intake 0.74 (0.42~1.00)∗∗ Efforts to eat high-protein foods 0.34 (0.11~0.57)
Frequency of instant food intake 0.68 (0.10~0.98)∗∗ Frequency of fruits intake 0.79 (0.62~0.95)∗∗
Frequency of fast food intake 0.68 (0.41~0.96)∗∗ Frequency of milk and milk product intake 0.45 (0.05~0.85)
Frequency of fried food intake 0.66 (0.30~1.00)∗∗ Frequency of vegetables intake -0.03 (-0.42~0.35)
Frequency of milk and milk product intake 0.57 (0.22~0.92)∗∗ Frequency of high-protein food intake 0.55 (0.29~0.81)∗∗
Frequency of vegetable dishes intake 0.40 (0.10~0.69)    

∗p-value < 0.05

∗∗p-value < 0.01

Table 7.
Dietary behavior questionnaire for all subjects
Salt and sodium intake1)
1 When you eat out, are there any place to eat, if you want to eat low salty food?
2 Usually, how salty do you like to eat?
3 Usually, do you think that it is necessary to eat low salty food?
4 Do you choose low salty menus at restaurants or food service facilities if available?
5 Usually, how salty is what you eat?
6 Do you dip food like pancake or fried food into soy sauce generally?
7 Usually, do you tend to consume almost all when you eat soup (seaweed soup, soybean past soup etc.) or noodle (ramen,
  banquet noodle, rice-cake soup, chopped noodle, udon, spicy seafood noodle soup, etc.)?
8 Usually, do you tend to eat salted and pickled and salted seafood (salted shrimp, salted mackerel, salted pollack roe,
  sauced cuttle fish), pickled vegetable (pickled garlic, pickled chili, pickled perilla leaf, etc.), or soy sauce marinated crab?
Added sugar and sweets intake2)
1 During the past year, are there always soda, juice, fruit juice, sport drink?
2 Do you like sweets?
3 When you are thirsty, do you tend to drink added sugar beverage rather than water?
4 During the past year, how often do you drink following beverage?
4-1 Soda (Cola, Cider, Fanta, etc.)
4-2 Coffee (except sugar free coffee and syrup free coffee)
4-3 Fruit juice (tangerine juice, orange juice, grape juice, etc.)
4-4 Sports drink (Pocari sweat, Getorade, Powerade, etc.)
4-5 Fruit syrup drink (citron, plum, omija etc.)
4-6 Tea or traditional beverages (sweet rice drink, Job's tears tea, ginger tea, powder of roast grain drink, iced tea, etc.)
Dietary behavior3)
1 Usually, how long does it take to eat a meal?
1-1 Breakfast
1-1-1 Usually, is it enough to eat breakfast?
1-2 Lunch
1-3 Dinner
1-3-1 Usually, what time do you eat a dinner?
2 During the past month, how often does it happen that you eat fast?

1) For salt or sodium Intake 1,3,4,8 items, response options were: (a) yes, (b) no, (c) don’t know. For 2,5 items, response options were: (a) No salty, (b) Less salty, (c) Average (d) a little salty, (e) salty. For 6,7 items, response options were: (a) hardly, (b) sometimes, (c) usually, (d) often, (e) always. 2) For Added Sugar or Sweetness Intake 1 items, response options were: (a) hardly, (b) irregularly, (c) always. For 2 items, response options were: (a) yes, (b) no, (c) don’t know. For 3 items, response options were: (a) hardly, (b) sometimes, (c) usually, (d) often, (e) always. For 4-1-6) items, response options were: (a) hardly, (b) once a month, (c) 2-3 a month (d) once a week, (e) 2-3 a week, (f) 5-6 a week, (g) once a day, (h) twice a day, (i) three times a day. 3) For Added Meal Behavior 1-(1-3) items, response options were: (a) don’t eat, (b) ○○ minutes. For 1-1-1 items, response options were: (a) yes, (b) no, (c) don’t know. For 1-3-1 items, response options were: at ○○:○○. For 2 item, response options were: (a) less than once a week, (b) 1-3 times a week, (c) 4-6 times a week, (d) once a month, (e) more than twice (total ○○ times)

Table 8.
Dietary behavior questionnaire for children
Caffeine intake1)
1 When you drink beverages, do you think it is necessary to choose less caffeine drink?
2 During the past year, how often do you drink following beverage?
2-1 High-caffeine drinks (Hotsix, Redbull, etc.)
2-2 Tonic drink(Bacchus, Vita500, Wonbi-D, etc.)
2-3 Chocolate drink (cocoa, hot choco, ice choco, Nesquik, etc.)
2-4 Black tea (include milk tea, iced tea, ceylon tea)
Snack and healthy food intake2)
1 Are your family or friends tend to eat fruits frequently?
2 Are there fruits in your home usually?
3 Are there milk or milk products in your home usually?
4 Are you trying to eat fruits rather than bread or snack?
5 Do you think that it is necessary to eat milk or milk products (yogurt, liquid yogurt) every day?
6 Do you think that it is necessary to eat vegetable side dishes except kimchi and pickled vegetables every mealtime?
7 During the past year, how often did you eat following foods (without eating between meals)?
7-1 Instant food (ramen, triangular gimbap)
7-2 Fast food (pizza, hamburger, french fried, etc.)
7-3 Fried food (fried chicken, sweet and sour fried chicken, fried noodles in seaweed, fried dumplins, etc.)
8 During the past year, how often did you eat following foods?
8-1 Fruits
8-2 Milk and milk products (yogurt, liquid yogurt etc.)
8-3 Vegetable side dishes (except kimchi and pickled vegetables)
8-3-1 How many kinds of side dish of vegetables did you eat every mealtime?

1) For caffeine intake 1 item, response options were: (a) yes, (b) no, (c) don’t know. For 2-(1-4) items, response options are: (a) hardly, (b once a month, (c) 2-3 a month (d) once a week, (e) 2-3 a week, (f) 5-6 a week, (g) once a day, (h) twice a day, (i) three times a day. 2) For snack and healthy food intake 1,5,6 items, response options were: (a) yes, (b) no, (c) don’t know. For 2, 3 items, response option were: (a) hardly, (b) irregularly, (c) always. For 4 item, response options were: (a) hardly, (b) sometimes, (c) usually, (d) often, (e) always For 7-(1-3) and 8-(1-3) items, response options were: (a) hardly, (b) once a month, (c) 2-3 a month (d) once a week, (e) 2-3 a week, (f) 5 6 a week, (g) once a day, (h) twice a day, (i) three times a day. For 8-3-1 item, response options were: ○○ dishes.

Table 9.
Dietary behavior questionnaire for elders
Limited intake1)
1 Do you have any support from government to solve teeth or oral problem, now or before?
2 Does a member of household (including you) who is in charge of cooking have difficulty to cook due to lack of cooking place, cooking facility or cooking equipment?
3 Do a member of household (including you) who is in charge of cooking have difficulty to cook due to physical disability?
4 Do a member of household (including you) who is in charge of purchasing foods have difficulty to buy foods due to physical disability?
5 How often a member of household (including you) who is in charge of cooking cook during the past month?
Snack and healthy food intake2)
1 Are there fruits in your home usually?
2 Are there milk or milk product in your home usually?
3 Are there nearby grocery stores (supermarket, food truck, street stall, etc.) convenient to buy vegetables and fruits?
4 Do you think that it is necessary to eat fruits every day?
5 Do you think that it is necessary to eat milk or milk products (yogurt, liquid yogurt) every day?
6 Do you think that it is necessary to eat vegetable side dishes except kimchi and pickled vegetables every mealtime?
7 Do you think that it is necessary to eat high-protein foods (meat, fish, egg, bean, etc.) at least once every mealtime?
8 During the past year, how often did you eat following foods?
8-1 Fruits
8-2 Milk and milk products (yogurt, liquid yogurts, etc.)
8-3 Vegetable side dishes (without kimchi and pickled vegetables)
8-3-1 How many kinds of side dish of vegetables did you eat every mealtime?
8-4 Side dishes containing meat, fish, egg, bean, etc.
8-4-1 How many kinds of high-protein food (meat, fish, egg, bean, etc.) for side dishes did you eat every mealtime?

1) For limited intake, 1,2,3,4 items response options were: (a) yes, (b) no. For 5 item, response options were: (a) less than once a week, (b) 1-3 times a week, (c) 4-6 times a week, (d) once a month, (e) more than twice (total ○○ times).

2) For snack and healthy food intake, 1,2 items response options were: (a) hardly, (b) irregularly, (c) always. For 3 item, response options were: (a) yes, (b) no. For 4,5,6,7 items, response options were: (a) yes, (b) no, (c) don’t know. For 8-(1-4) items, response options were: (a) hardly, (b) once a month, (c) 2-3 a month (d) once a week, (e) 2-3 a week, (f) 5-6 a week, (g) once a day, (h) twice a day, (i) three times a day. For 8-3-1, 8-4-1 items, response options were: ○○ dishes.

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