Journal List > J Nutr Health > v.50(6) > 1081540

Jiang and Lee: Analysis of sodium content of representative Korean foods high in sodium from home meal, foodservice, and restaurants∗

Abstract

Purpose

The aim of this study was to analyze the sodium contents of representative Korean foods high in sodium and develop them as a fundamental resource for setting the standard amount of sodium in foods. Methods: A total of 480 representative Korean foods high in sodium were collected from households, foodservice establishments, and restaurants in four regions (Capital region, Chungcheong & Gangwon Province, Gyeongsang province, and Jeolla province) and analyzed their sodium content. Results: The sodium content (per 100 g) of food categorized by food group was highest in kimchi and braised food (p<0.001), and the sodium content of each food was highest in stir-fried anchovies (1,896.6 mg) followed by braised burdock and lotus roots (820.6 mg) and picked onions (809.3 mg) (p<0.001). However, the sodium content per portion of food was highest in steamed short ribs (1,429.6 mg) from home meals (p<0.001), Bibimbap, (1,074.1 mg) and steamed short ribs (838.8 mg) from foodservice (p<0.001), spicy beef soup (3,273.2 mg), and pollack stew (2,930.2 mg) from restaurants (p<0.001). The sodium content per 100 g and portion of soups and stews from restaurants was significantly higher than that of home meals and foodservice meals (p<0.001), and the sodium content per portion of steam dishes and stir-fried dishes from home meals was significantly higher than that of foodservice meals (p<0.05). Conclusions: These results suggest that developing and using low-sodium soybean sauces & soybean paste and kimchi is needed in an effort to reduce sodium intake. In addition, determination of the sodium contents of representative Korean foods known to be high in sodium is expected to be useful in establishing guidelines for reduction of sodium content.

References

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Table 1.
A recognition of validity on the representative Korean food high in sodium of the housewives n (%)
  Valid Average Invalid Non-response
Bibimbap (n = 721) 221 (30.7) 423 (58.7) 50 (6.9) 27 (3.7)
Soybean paste soup (n = 721) 319 (44.2) 351 (48.7) 33 (4.6) 18 (2.5)
Seaweed soup (n = 721) 156 (21.6) 448 (62.1) 75 (10.4) 42 (5.8)
Spicy beef soup (n = 721) 378 (52.4) 285 (39.5) 23 (3.2) 35 (4.9)
Pollack Stew (n = 721) 347 (48.1) 317 (44.0) 21 (2.9) 36 (5.0)
Soybean paste stew (n = 721) 399 (55.3) 277 (38.4) 21 (2.9) 24 (3.3)
Spicy soft tofu stew (n = 721) 290 (40.2) 359 (49.8) 30 (4.2) 42 (5.8)
Barbecued beef (n = 30) 198 (27.5) 439 (60.9) 46 (6.4) 38 (5.3)
Stir-fried pork (n = 721) 321 (44.5) 332 (46.0) 31 (4.3) 37 (5.1)
Stir-fried anchovy (n = 721) 287 (39.8) 371 (51.5) 37 (5.1) 26 (3.6)
Braised mackerel (n = 721) 368 (51.0) 298 (41.6) 23 (3.2) 32 (4.4)
Braised lotus root (n = 721) 276 (38.3) 377 (52.3) 35 (4.9) 33 (4.6)
Steamed short ribs (n = 721) 378 (38.6) 398 (55.2) 16 (2.2) 29 (4.0)
Pickled onions (n = 721) 371 (51.5) 291 (40.4) 31 (4.3) 28 (3.9)
Cabbage kimchi (n = 721) 383 (53.1) 303 (42.0) 22 (3.1) 13 (1.8)
Radish kimchi (n = 721) 305 (42.3) 355 (49.2) 18 (2.5) 43 (6.0)
Table 2.
A recognition of validity on the representative Korean food high in sodium of the restaurant owners n (%
  Valid Normal Invalid Nonresponse
Bibim bap (n = 721) 128 (17.8) 407 (56.4) 44 (6.1) 142 (19.7)
Soybean paste soup (n = 721) 199 (27.6) 362 (50.2) 52 (7.2) 108 (15.0)
Seaweed soup (n = 721) 111 (15.4) 412 (57.1) 64 (8.9) 134 (18.6)
Pollack Stew (n = 721) 204 (28.3) 337 (46.7) 45 (6.2) 135 (18.7)
Spicy beef soup (n = 721) 265 (36.8) 299 (41.5) 35 (4.9) 122 (16.9)
Soybean paste stew (n = 721) 277 (38.4) 315 (43.7) 34 (4.7) 95 (13.2)
Spicy soft tofu stew (n = 721) 190 (26.4) 367 (50.8) 36 (5.0) 128 (17.8)
Barbequed beef (n = 721) 125 (17.3) 401 (55.6) 45 (6.2) 150 (20.8)
Stir-fried pork (n = 721) 170 (23.6) 387 (53.7) 42 (5.8) 122 (16.9)
Stir-fried anchovy (n = 721) 199 (27.6) 349 (48.4) 35 (4.9) 138 (19.1)
Braised mackerel (n = 721) 235 (32.6) 316 (43.8) 32 (4.4) 138 (19.1)
Braised lotus root (n = 721) 225 (31.2) 316 (43.8) 23 (3.2) 157 (21.8)
Steamed short ribs (n = 721) 160 (22.2) 379 (52.6) 29 (4.0) 153 (21.2)
Pickled onions (n = 721) 282 (39.1) 265 (36.8) 28 (3.9) 146 (20.2)
Cabbage kimchi (n = 721) 265 (36.8) 359 (49.8) 28 (3.9) 69 (9.6)
Radish kimchi (n = 721) 232 (32.2) 341 (47.3) 27 (3.7) 121 (16.8)
Table 3.
Comparison of the sodium content of the representative Korean food high in sodium by eating place
Sodium content Home meal Foodservice Restaurant F-value Total
(mg/100 g) (n = 160) (n = 160) (n = 160) (n = 480)
Bibim bap (n = 30) 244.1 ± 51.1AB 287.5 ± 74.7A 276.2 ± 81.1A 1.031 269.3 ± 70.3A
Seaweed soup (n = 30) 252.9 ± 76.4AB 248.8 ± 44.9A 297.4 ± 87.9AB 1.399 266.4 ± 73.1A
Soybean paste soup (n = 30) 302.6 ± 118.5aA 268.9 ± 64.8aA 419.4 ± 92.6bAB 6.984∗∗ 330.3 ± 112.4AB
Spicy beef soup (n = 30) 262.0 ± 68.1aAB 262.4 ± 23.5aA 467.6 ± 124.3bABCD 20.438∗∗∗ 330.7 ± 126.9AB
Pollack Stew (n = 30) 174.3 ± 39.7aA 228.9 ± 57.6aA 366.3 ± 108.2bABC 17.685∗∗∗ 256.5 ± 109.1A
Soybean paste stew (n = 30) 347.9 ± 110.8aABC 273.1 ± 97.4aA 512.9 ± 149.1bBCD 10.271∗∗∗ 377.9 ± 155.0AB
Spicy soft tofu stew (n = 30) 222.0 ± 89.4AB 263.3 ± 88.0A 309.8 ± 112.6AB 2.041 265.1 ± 100.7A
Steamed short ribs (n = 30) 389.0 ± 126.1BC 366.4 ± 92.6AB 449.1 ± 153.1ABCD 1.144 401.5 ± 127.0B
Barbecued beef (n = 30) 331.7 ± 145.2ABC 323.8 ± 103.6A 415.5 ± 104.3BC 1.814 357.0 ± 122.6B
Stir-fried pork (n = 30) 379.0 ± 117.7BC 366.1 ± 82.0AB 463.5 ± 156.4ABCD 1.863 402.9 ± 126.1B
Stir-fried anchovy (n = 30) 2,113.2 ± 527.6E 1,801.1 ± 552.2C 1,775.5 ± 513.1E 1.253 1,896.6 ± 535.8E
Braised mackerel (n = 30) 386.5 ± 100.3BC 413.3 ± 103.9AB 436.8 ± 157.4ABCD 0.418 412.2 ± 120.8B
Braised lotus root (n = 30) 661.2 ± 243.5D 849.8 ± 564.9C 950.9 ± 420.0E 1.169 820.6 ± 432.6D
Pickled onions (n = 30) 637.9 ± 221.1aD 867.0 ± 268.3abC 923.0 ± 281.3bE 3.424 809.3 ± 279.0D
Cabbage kimchi (n = 30) 679.4 ± 147.4D 582.6 ± 94.9B 651.0 ± 165.7D 1.275 637.6 ± 140.6C
Radish kimchi (n = 30) 506.4 ± 155.7CD 566.9 ± 137.0B 550.9 ± 179.8CD 0.391 541.4 ± 155.1C
F-value 62.452∗∗∗ 32.724∗∗∗ 30.020∗∗∗   107.854∗∗∗

Mean ± SD

p < 0.05,

∗∗ p < 0.01,

∗∗∗ p < 0.001 by ANOVA abc: Values with the different small letter superscript are significantly different among row by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05. ABC: Values with the different capital letter superscript are significantly different among column by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05.

Table 4.
Sodium content of the representative Korean food high in sodium by eating place
Sodium content (mg/portion) Home meal (n = 160) Foodservice (n = 160) Restaurant (n = 160)  
portion Sodium portion Sodium portion Sodium F-value
size (g) (mg/portion) size (g) (mg/portion) size (g) (mg/portion)  
Bibim bap (n = 30) 412.6 1,026.7 ± 367.9G 372.5 1,074.1 ± 426.7E 500.0 1,381.1 ± 405.6E 2.305
Seaweed soup (n = 30) 239.0 617.4 ± 250.9CD 229.5 567.8 ± 166.4CD 250.0 743.5 ± 219.7BC 1.772
Soybean paste soup (n = 30) 251.8 737.0 ± 283.7aCDEFG 221.7 598.6 ± 175.3aCD 250.0 1,048.6 ± 231.4bCDE 9.672∗∗
Spicy beef soup (n = 30) 375.4 992.4 ± 434.2aFG 293.3 762.7 ± 187.4aCD 700.0 3,273.2 ± 870.4bG 58.895∗∗∗
Pollack Stew (n = 30) 360.3 636.8 ± 234.7aCDE 293.8 660.1 ± 181.3aCD 800.0 2,930.2 ± 865.2bG 62.245∗∗∗
Soybean paste stew (n = 30) 266.6 942.9 ± 376.1aEFG 253.3 683.6 ± 235.7aCD 400.0 2,051.5 ± 596.3bF 28.660∗∗∗
Spicy soft tofu stew (n = 30) 304.4 679.3 ± 335.7aCDEF 268.6 716.3 ± 298.6aCD 400.0 1,239.4 ± 450.3bDE 7.274∗∗
Steamed short ribs (n = 30) 371.5 1,429.6 ± 494.0bH 229.4 838.8 ± 297.4aDE 250.0 1,122.8 ± 382.8abCDE 5.468
Barbecued beef (n = 30) 276.7 922.7 ± 442.2DEFG 190.4 619.1 ± 273.5CD 200.0 831.0 ± 208.5C 2.317
Stir-fried pork (n = 30) 255.9 961.9 ± 303.3FG 204.1 769.3 ± 375.7CD 200.0 927.0 ± 312.9CD 0.955
Stir-fried anchovy (n = 30) 32.6 680.0 ± 201.7bCDEF 40.9 776.0 ± 497.7bCD 20.0 355.1 ± 102.6aA 4.884
Braised mackerel (n = 30) 231.3 888.5 ± 253.0bEFG 186.4 769.3 ± 286.6bCD 100.0 436.8 ± 157.4aAB 9.618∗∗
Braised lotus root (n = 30) 66.5 455.7 ± 332.1BC 57.8 484.2 ± 386.1BC 30.0 285.3 ± 126.0A 1.261
Pickled onions (n = 30) 48.3 305.7 ± 111.2aAB 67.8 592.9 ± 259.3bCD 20.0 184.6 ± 56.3aA 15.944∗∗∗
Cabbage kimchi (n = 30) 40.0 271.7 ± 59.0abAB 40.0 233.0 ± 38.0aAB 50.0 325.5 ± 82.8bA 5.488
Radish kimchi (n = 30) 30.0 151.9 ± 46.7aA 30.0 170.1 ± 41.1aA 50.0 275.4 ± 89.9bA 11.165∗∗∗
F-value   11.306∗∗∗   5.901∗∗∗   51.919∗∗∗  

Mean ± SD

p < 0.05,

∗∗ p < 0.01,

∗∗∗ p < 0.001 by ANOVA abc: Values with the different small letter superscript are significantly different among row by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05. ABC: Values with the different capital letter superscript are significantly different among column by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05.

Table 5.
Comparison of the sodium content of the representative Korean food group high in sodium by eating place
Sodium content Home meal Foodservice Restaurant F-value
(mg/100 g) (n = 140) (n = 140) (n = 140)
Soup/Stew (n = 180) 260.3 ± 100.9aAB 257.6 ± 66.3aA 395.6 ± 135.2bAB 34.111∗∗∗
Steamed dishes (n = 30) 389.0 ± 126.1C 366.4 ± 92.6A 449.1 ± 153.1B 1.144
Stir-fried dishes† (n = 60) 355.4 ± 130.9aBC 345.0 ± 93.5aA 439.5 ± 131.7bB 3.730
Braised dishes (n = 60) 523.8 ± 229.6D 631.6 ± 454.3B 693.9 ± 406.0C 1.047
Kimchi (n = 90) 607.9 ± 187.3D 672.2 ± 225.0B 708.3 ± 262.1C 1.508
F-value 28.002∗∗∗ 22.735∗∗∗ 14.003∗∗∗  

Mean ± SD

p < 0.05,

∗∗∗ p < 0.001 by ANOVA abc: Values with the different small letter superscript are significantly different among row by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05. ABC: Values with the different capital letter superscript are significantly different among column by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05.

Stir-fried anchovy is not included in stir-fired dishes.

Table 6.
Sodium content per serving size of dish groups by eating place
Sodium content (mg/portion) Home meal (n = 140) Foodservice (n = 140) Restaurant (n = 140)  
portion Sodium portion Sodium portion Sodium F-value
size (g) (mg/portion) size (g) (mg/portion) size (g) (mg/portion)  
Soup/Stew (n = 180) 299.6 767.7 ± 346.1aBC 260.0 664.8 ± 214.1aBC 466.7 1,881.1 ± 1,121.2bC 57.558∗∗∗
Steamed dishes (n = 30) 371.5 1,429.6 ± 494.6bE 229.4 838.8 ± 297.4aC 250.0 1,122.8 ± 382.8abB 3.173
Stir-fried dishes† (n = 60) 188.4 942.3 ± 369.6bCD 145.1 694.2 ± 329.0aBC 140.0 879.0 ± 263.4aB 5.880∗∗
Braised dishes (n = 60) 148.9 672.1 ± 363.2bB 122.1 626.8 ± 361.2bB 65.0 361.1 ± 159.0aA 5.468
Kimchi (n = 90) 39.4 243.1 ± 100.5A 45.9 332.0 ± 240.3A 40.0 261.8 ± 95.6A 2.568
F-value   25.279∗∗∗   13.242∗∗∗   25.571∗∗∗  

Mean ± SD

p < 0.05,

∗∗ p < 0.01,

∗∗∗ p < 0.001 by ANOVA abc: Values with the different small letter superscript are significantly different among row by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05. ABC: Values with the different capital letter superscript are significantly different among column by Duncan's multiple range test at p < 0.05.

Stir-fried anchovy is not included in stir-fired dishes.

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